Фоностилистикада кездесетін жағдайлар

Apostrophe - a figure of speech which consists in addressing an absent, dead or invented person, as well as animals and things.

Personification – (a variant of METAPHOR) – a trope in which an “animate” or human feature is ascribed to an inanimate object or to an abstract concept: *(a cold, unseen stranger)

Polysyndeton - a figure of speech which consists in the combination of Homogeneous (однородных) parts of sentence by mean of the same conjunction: * (and of the golden lyre,

And of the golden hair…) 

Parallel construction – a figure based on the use of the similar syntactic pattern (структура) in two or more sentences or syntagms:

*(When the lamp is shattered…. 

When the cloud is scattered )

Litotes – (a variant of PERIPHRASIS) a figure of speech which consists in the affirmation of the contrary by negation : *(the wedding was no distant event)

Metaphor – a trope which consists in the use of words in transferred meanings by way of similarity or analogy: *(merry larks are ploughmen’s clooks (Shake speare))

Hyperbole – a trope which consists in a deliberate exaggeration (умышленное преувеличение) of a feature essential to an object or phenomenon. * (Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old

 

 

 

1.5 Different levels of language units

 

Generally speaking, the word level became very popular in twentieth century science and even in political phraseology:

Prime Minister level

on the highest level

in linguistic, the word level is used in collocations like language level, speech level, observation level (уровень наблюдения), construct leve l(уровень конструктов), prosodic level (просодический), phraseological level, the level of the principal parts of the sentence, and even stylistic level (proposed by Galperin).

The term level as applied to language is more appropriate when used in the sense implied by the French linguists Benveniste, who used it to characterize the hierarchical structure of language itself, not the arbitrary aspects of research. Our compatriot Maslov employs the term tier – ярус- instead.

The smallest or shortest unit of language is the phoneme. The sequence of phonemes making units of higher ranks represents the phonemic level. One or several phonemes combined constitute a unit of a higher level, the second level – that of morphemes, or the morphemic level. One or usually more than one morpheme make a word, a ‘lexeme’ – hence, the lexical level. One or usually more than one word make an utterance, or, in traditional terminology, a sentence. Hence, the sentence level. Word combinations are best treated as not forming an independent level for two reasons – 1)functionally, they do not differ from words, because they name without communicating

2) one word does not make a word combination, whereas one word can make an utterance: OUT! WHY? WINTER.

We could go on singling out paragraph level and even text level paying hamage to the now fashionable text linguistics but for the fact that not every text is divided into paragraphs, although every paragraph or every text is divisible into sentences.

Each level consists of units of the neighbouring lower level with nothing besides – a sentence consists only of words; a word is divided into morphemes or sometimes coincides with one; a morpheme containes nothing but phonemes or is represented by one of them, as in make-s, read –er, pen –s.

Summing up, we must say that the first meaning of the word level suggests the idea of horizontal layers (subdivisions) of some structure. And, indeed, when we come to inspect language, we discover that language presents a hierarchy of level, from the lowest up to the highest.

And each level is described by what we named above a ‘level discipline’ – phonetics, morphology, lexicology, syntax. To these the modern text linguistics may be added. Of course, stylistics does not fit in here.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.6 The concept of sublanguages

 

L-ge is heterogeneous.

Sublanguage is a language subsistem which satisfy the needs and purpose of communication in certain sphere, Functional styles can represent by sublanguage style. There are 2 spheres odf communication: official and inofficial – they represent different sublanguages.

The classification of style by Ilya Golperin.

1. bellesletters – poetry, emotive words, drama

2. pablicistic style- speeches, essay, articles

3. newspaper- briefnews, headlines, advertisements, editorial

4. .scientific prose.

5, official doc-s.

Very important features of this clas-n; he didn’t single out colloqual style, as he considered it spontaneous unprepared and perfunctory (поверхностный).

Irina Arnold singles out 4 styles:

Poetic style, scientific style, newspaper style, colloqual style.

Sublanguages in different spheres:

1. sphere of busines. - Business correspondence, Diplomatic corr., International treaties, Private corr.

2. sphere of law (legal documents) - civil law, criminal law, settlements

3. personal doc-s. (sertificates, diplomes).

- Diplomatic sphere. - As usual this language is international. As usual this sphere concerns with the written texts.i.g. public speeches in the government etc. The form and contense are equally significant here. Every person must give his ideas in a concrete and thoughtfull way, but at the same time these speeches should be artistic & emotive. i.g. mr. President! It is natural to mean to enduldge in the illusion of hope.

- Legal sphere (lang. Of law). Legal terminology is used. i.g. the prosecutor represents the people of the state (прокурор представляет народ штата). There are some specific phrases: i.g. his honour to court! Everybody, please rises. Суд идет! Прошу всех встать.

- The colloqual sphere. By coll. We mean what is slightly lower than neutral. People use them when they don’t to be rude, sarcastic or witty. And the speech becomes calloqual & with a tinge of familiarity. Talking with our friends we don’t notice the forms of the sublanguage we employ. But not in the company of strangers it may not be done. Coll. Sphere may contain words belonging to jargonisms, professionalisms, & slang. This speech may be careless, unconventional. i.g. if I was you, I would… (were).

The number of sublanguages is not clear at all.

Each sublanguage characterize:

1. Non-specific units – neutral

2. relatively specific – may be unknown to people without education, children. Can be used for different sublanguages. Meaning is narrower.

3. absolutely specific

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 2. Problems of phonostylistics

2.1 Phonetics as a science

 

Phonetics as a science is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized or given audible shape: the nature of these noises, their combinations, and their functions in relation to the meaning. The term “phonetics” comes from the Greek word “phone” translated as “sounds”.

Phonetics studies the sound system of the language, that is segmental phonemes, word-stress, syllabic structure and intonation.

Phonetics is a basic branch of linguistics; neither linguistic theory nor linguistic practice can do without phonetics and no language description is complete without phonetics, the science concerned with the spoken medium of language. That is why phonetics claims to be of equal importance with grammar or lexicology.

Phonetics has 2 main divisions: on the one hand “phonology”, the study of the sound patterns of languages, of how a spoken language functions as a “code”, and on the other - the study of substance, that carries the code. Phonology is the branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as pitch, stress and tempo. The phoneticians are interested in the way in which sound phenomena function in a particular language, how they are utilized in that language and what part they play in manifesting the meaningful distinctions of the language.

There are 3 branches of phonetics each corresponding to a different stage in the communication process:

The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these movements in the pronunciation of single sounds and trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics.

Acoustic phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear. The means by which we discriminate sounds-quality, sensations of pitch, loudness, length are relevant here. This branch of phonetics is of great interest to anyone who teaches or studies pronunciation.

The branch of phonetics investigating the hearing process is known as auditory phonetics. Its interests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than in the physiological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the brain.

Phonetics is in itself divided into two major components: segmental phonetics, which is concerned with individual sounds (i.e. “segments” of speech) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts.

Another subdivision of phonetics:

1) general phonetics – studies general laws, formulates general theories (theory of intonation, syllable formation, phoneme);

2) special phonetics – based on general phonetics, it deals with phonetical peculiarities of a certain language;

3) some linguists distinguish historical phonetics – it traces the development of the phonetic system in the course of time finding out the basic laws of the system.

Language is not an isolated phenomenon; it is a part of society and a part of ourselves. It is a prerequisite for the development of any society. No branch of linguistics can be studied without presupposing at least the study of other aspects of society. We see the development of quite distinct interdisciplinary subjects such as sociolinguistics (sociophonetics), psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics and others.

Sociophonetics studies the way in which pronunciation interacts with society. It is the study of the way in which phonetic structures change in response to different social functions and the deviations of what these functions are.

Psycholinguistics as a distinct area of interest covers the psychological implications of an extremely broad area, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology (discusses the problem of acquisition of language by children, the extent to which language is influenced and influences such things as memory, attention, recall and constraints on perception, the extent to which language has a certain role to play in the understanding of human development, the problems of speech production).

Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools used in this field enable the investigator to measure and analyze the movement of the air in terms of acoustics.

A study of phonetics has educational value for almost everyone realizing the importance of language in human communication. The study of the complex of various communication techniques is definitely relevant to teaching a foreign language.

As regards the learning of specific foreign languages, there has never been a time in the world when the ability of growing numbers of people to speak one another’s language really well has been of such significance as now.

Knowledge of the structure of sound systems, and of the articulatory and acoustic properties of the production of speech is necessary in teaching foreign languages. The teacher has to know the starting point, which is the sound system of the pupil’s mother tongue as well as the aim of his teaching, which is a mastery of the pronunciation of the language to be learnt. He must be able to point out the difference between these two, and to arrange adequate training exercises. Ear training and articulatory training are both equally important in modern language teaching. The introductory of technical equipment – disks, taperecorders, language laboratories, etc – has brought about a revolution in teaching pronunciation of a foreign language.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.2 Phonostylistics

 

Phonetics studies the way phonetic means are used in this or that particular situation which exercises the conditioning influence of a set of factors, which are referred to as extralinguistic. The aim of phonetics is to analyze all possible kinds of spoken utterances with the main purpose of identifying the phonetic features, both segmental and suprasegmental, which are restricted to certain kinds of contexts, to explain why such features have been used and to classify them into categories, based upon a view of their function.

Style-forming and style-modifying factors:

Style forming factor is the aim or purpose of the utterance. The aim is the strategy of the speaker.

the form of communication (monologue or dialogue);

the speaker’s attitude to the situation (emotions, thoughts, etc);

the degree of formality ( formal – informal);

the degree of spontaneity or of preparedness, the speaker’s educational background played a great role.

Styles of speech according to the purpose of communication.

informational

academic (scientific)

publicistic (oratorical)

declamatory (artistic)

colloquial (familiar)

Using the informational style the speaker ought to be careful not to distract the listener by what he is saying (TV-announcers). Written representation of oral and prepared speech.

Scientific style is used in lectures or science subjects or when reading out loud a piece of scientific prose. The purpose is to attract the listener’s attention to what is the most important in the lecture.

Publicistic style is used by politicians, the purpose is to except the influence of the listener to convince him of something, and make him accept the speaker’s point of view.

It is used in reading poetry, prose aloud, in stage speech to appeal to the feelings of the listener.

Conversational formulae familiar of everyday communication are used in speech of friends within similar groups. It can have a wide range of intonation patterns.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conclusion

 

Stylistic value of the sound organization of works of book-writing culture and folklore due to the presence of special intentions of the distribution and combination of acoustic units in the process of text-based communication and the genre of the text units, predetermine the composition of audio forms and compounds, and their semantic perspective. As soon as a stylistic view of language and the text implies the consideration of any unit, any funds from the perspective of his possible replacement, given the nature of its variability, phonostylistics study the selectivity in the formation of structural units of text, depending on their acoustic structure, discussed the similarity of sounds and contrasts, repetitions and the configuration audio units, compositional forms and techniques of sound-wave of the text as internally integrated multi-level education.

If you do not take individual facts sound symbolism, the impact of the text is vague and fragmentary are updated "phonetic value" (which, moreover, manifested mainly in the organized systematic unity rather than atomic or aggregate), the sound units of language have no independent semantic features. Sound means of becoming active in the body, not because of their ability to act as semantic style, but rather because of their freedom from direct semantic load. The main function of phonemes - act as an exhibitor morpheme - is built here is secondary, structural and text-which is not a continuation of its semantic features, but a consequence of their absence. The main reason for updating text-sound capabilities of the language is, thus, their "unspent" semantic potential, striving to fill the language of the functional gaps.

The most important methodological prerequisite phonostylistics text is the idea of ​​involuntary, direct and indirect motivation of linguistic sign as a constructive element of the text.

Universal Search in phonostylistics inevitably focused on the scope of functions to a greater extent than in the sphere of form, and consequently, again leads to the level of the text, the most complete and at the same time is always an indie-vidual embodying the functional potency of speech structures and units. On the other hand, in the form of the search requires not only cataloging varieties of sound constructions, as the establishment of some of the simplest of intentions and techniques of text-one way or another based on the sound organization of speech, "the elementary principles of forming" a sound organization of the text, which implement some of the common functional tasks that are generated within the semantic strategy of texts of various kinds, in other words - understanding the basic functional perspective, the most common, and, further, specific forms of sound repetition and contrast to create the text.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

 

1. Antipov, AM Rhythmic system of English speech. M., 1984.

2. Borisova LV, Metlyuk AA Theoretical Phonetics. Minsk, 1980.

3. Zinder, LZ The general phonetics. L., 1979.

4. Ivanov IP, Chakhoyan LP, Belyaev, TM History of the English language. Textbook. A Reader. Dictionary. Saint-Petersburg., 2001.

5. Ilish BA History of the English language. M., 1968.

6. Kamyshnaya NG Hyphenation in modern English. M., 1972.

7. M organ, LG Ancient Society. Trans. from English. L., 1934.

8. Reformed AA Introduction to Linguistics. Moscow: Aspekt Press, 2001.

9. Sokolova, MA Practical Phonetics of English. MM: VLADOS, 2001.

10. Sokolova, MA Theoretical Phonetics of English. MM: VLADOS, 2004.