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Grammatically, the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predicative function of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation named in the utterance and reality. The complexity of the verb is inherent not only in the intricate structure of its grammatical, categories, but also in its various subclass divisions.
The Verb
The general review
Grammatically, the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predicative function of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation named in the utterance and reality.
The complexity of the verb is inherent not only in the intricate structure of its grammatical, categories, but also in its various subclass divisions.
The complicated character of the grammatical and lexico-grammatical structure of the verb has given rise to much dispute and controversy and also terminological disagreements among the scholars. The general categorical meaning of the verb is process.
A verb is a word (e.g.: to run) or a phrase (e.g.: run out of), which expresses the existence of a state (love, seem) or the doing of an action (take, play).
From the point of view of their outward structure, verbs may be simple, composite and phrasal.
The original simple verbs are not numerous (go, take, real, etc).
But conversion (zero-suffixation) as means of derivation, greatly enlarges the simple stem set of verbs. It is one of the most productive ways of forming verbs in ME.
Ex.: a cloud - to cloud, a house - to house, a man - to man, a park - to park.
The typical suffixes expanding the stem of the verb are: -ate; -en; -ify; -izy.
The verb-deriving prefixes are:
Be- (e.g.: belittle, befriend, bemoan);
En- (e.g.: engulf, embed);
Re- (e.g.: remake);
Under- (e.g.: undergo);
Over- (e.g.: overestimate);
Sub- (e.g.: submerge);
Mis- (e.g.: misunderstand)
The composite verb stems (blackmail, whitewash, etc).
Phrasal verbs occupy an intermediate position between analytical forms of the verb and syntactic word combinations. Among such stems 2 specific constructions should be mentioned:
A) a combination of the head-verb (have, give, take and some others) with a noun; the combination has its equivalent an ordinary verb. Ex.: to have a smoke - to smoke; to give a smile - to smile; to take a stroll - to stroll.
B) а combination of a head verb with a verbal postposition that has a specificational value. Ex. stand up; go on; give in; be off, get along.
On the basis of the subject-process relation all the notional verbs be divided into actional and statal.
Actional verbs express the action performed by the subject. To this class belong such verbs as do, act, make, go, read, learn, discover, etc.
Statal verbs denote the caste of their subject. To this subclass belong such verbs as be live, survive, worry, suffer, see, know, etc. They usually occur in the simple form in all tenses. They are not generally used in progressive forms. But if there are used so there any change of meaning. E.g.: Oh, it hurts! — Oh, it's hurting!
The complicated structure and character of the verb has given rise to much dispute and controversy. The morphological field of the English verb heterogeneous. It includes a number of groups or classes of verbs, which differ from each other in their morphological and syntactic properties.
All English verbs have finite and non-finite forms.
The finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb- predicate. Finite verbs are subdivided into regular and irregular depending on the way the participle II are formed.
Non-finite verbs perform different functions according to their intermediary nature (subject, object, adverbial modifier, attribute). They may be used as any member of the sentence but the predicate. Inside the sentence verbals make up complexes with other members of the sentence.
Соnсlusiоn
The nucleus of the morphological field of the verb is based on the finite verbs, and the periphery includes all other groups of verbs and verbals.
The grammatical categories which find formal expression in the outward structure of the verb are categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood. This complete set is revealed in every word-form of the notional finite form.
From the functional point of view the class of verbs may be subdivided into the set of full nominative value and partial. Notional verbs are verbs of full nominative value. The set of partial nominative value represent semi-notional and functional verbs. The first set is derivationally open it includes the bulk of the verbal lexicon. The second set is derivationally closed, it includes limited subsets of verbs characterized by individual relational properties.
Semi-notional and functional verbs include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, link-verbs. Semi-notional verbs (seem, happen, turn out, begin, continue, stop, fall, try, etc).
Link-verbs: seem, appear, look, feel, become, get, grow, remain, keep.
Auxiliary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorical forms of the verb. These are the verbs be, have, do shall, will, should, may, might. Auxiliary verbs to give other information about actions and states.
Ex. be may be used with the present participle of a full verb to say that an action was going on at a particular time ("in progress"). I was swimming.
Ex.: The verb “to have” may be used with the past participle of a full verb to say that an action is completed (I have finished my job).
Link-verbs introduce the nominal part of the predicate (the predicative), which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective or a phrase of a similar semantico-grammatical character. It should be noted that link-verb, although they are named so, are not devoid of meaningful content. Their function is connecting (linking) the subject and the predicative of the sentence. The linking function in the purest form is effected by the verb be (pure link-verb). All the link-verbs other than the pure links the pure specification express some specification (specifying link-verbs). Two main groups:
A) perceptional link verbs: seem, appear, look, feel, taste.
B) factual limk-verbs: become, get, grow, remain, keep.
Verbals make up a special grammatical category.
Among the various forms of the verb the infinitive occupies a unique position. Its status is that of the principal representative of the verb-lexeme as a whole. This is determined by the two factors:
A) its giving the most general dynamic name to the process;
B) its serving as the actual derivative base for all the other regular forms of the verb.
The Infinitive is intermediate between the verb and the noun. It combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun. It is considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb.
The Participle is intermediate between the verb and the adjective and adverb.
The Present Participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb and those of the adjective and adverb, serving as qualifying processual name. In its outer form the present participle is wholly homonymous with the gerund and distinguishes the same grammatical categories.
Like all the verbals it has no categorical time distinctions, and the attribute "present" in its conventional name is not immediately explanatory; it is used from force of tradition.
Past Participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying processual name. It is a single form, having no paradigm of its own. It conveys implicitly the categorial meaning of the perfect and the passive. The main functions in the sentence are those of the attribute and the predicative.
The gerund is the non- finite form of the verb, which like the infinitive combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun. Similar to the infinitive, gerund serves as me verbal name of a process, but its substantive quality is more strongly pronounced than that of the Infinitive.
A question might arise, why the Infinitive and not the gerund is taken as the head-form of the verbal paradigm?
The gerund cannot perform the function of the paradigmatic head-form for a number of reasons. In the first place, it is more detached from the finite verb than the infinitive semantically. Then it is a suffixal form, which makes it less generalized. Finally, it is less definite, being subject to easy neutralization in its opposition. Hence the gerund is no rival of the infinitive in the paradigmatic head-form function.
The formal sign of the gerund is wholly homonymous with that of the present participle: it is the suffix ”-ing” added to the grammatically leading element. Like the infinitive the gerund is a categorially changeable form. It distinguishes the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), and the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently the categorical paradigm of the gerund includes 4 forms: the simple, the perfect active, the simple passive the perfect passive.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs express the attitude: ability, obligation, permission, advisability, probability. Modal Verbs are defective in forms. They do not differentiate the category of person, number, voice, aspect, perfect, no future tense no verbals. They have lost many of their categorial meanings.
Modal verbs or modals are concerned with our relationship with someone else. Modal have 2 major functions which can be defined as primary and secondary.
Primary function of Modal Verbs. In their primary function MVs closely reflect the meanings:
A) of ability (can/could). / can lift 25 kg/I can type.
B) of permission (may/might). You may leave early.
C) of prediction (will/would) - (shall/should). It will rain soon.
D) Of escapable obligation or duty (should/ought to). You should (ought to) do as you are told.
E) Of inescapable obligation. You must be quiet. F) Of absence of obligation. You needn't wait.
Secondary function of MVs
In their secondary function nine of modal auxiliaries can be used to express the degree of certainly/uncertainly a speaker fuels about a possibility. They can be arranged on a scale from the greatest uncertainty (might) to the greatest certainty (must).
might
may
could
can be right
should have been right
You ought to
would
will
must
very certain
almost certain
The category of aspect
The aspective meaning of the verb reflects the mode of the realization of the process. The opposition of the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous represents the aspective category of development. The marked member of the opposition is the continuous. It is built by the auxiliary be plus the Present Participle. In symbolic notation it is represented by the formula be...ing. The categorial meaning of the Continuous is "action in progress".
The unmarked member is the indefinite, which leaves the meaning unspecified. Four combinations of the continuous and the indefinite are possible in principle in Modern English. E.g.: While I was typing, Mary and Tom were chatting in the adjoining room. While I typing, Tom and Mary were chatting in the adjoining room. While I was typing, they chatted in ... While I typed, they chatted.
Clearly, the difference in meaning cannot lie in their time denotations. The time is shown by their time signals (were - ed). The meaningful difference consists in the following: the continuous shows the action in the very process of its realization; the indefinite points it out as a mere fact. We speak of the morphological category of the verb, but care should be taken that the character of the development of the action may also be expressed lexically or remain implicit. E.g.: When I entered the room he was writing a letter. He wrote and wrote the letter (lexically). When I entered the room, he wrote a letter.
In the last sentence the form of the verb doesn't express the Continuous aspect explicitly because the speaker isn't interested in the action, but in the object of the action. Traditionally forms like "is writing" are called Present, Past, Future Continuous Tense, but that is not quite right. Such forms should be called Present Tense, Continuous aspect (is writing). The Present Tense is modified by the Continuous. It the Continuous were a special tense then we should speak of 2 tenses at once. But the action can't develop in 2 tenses at once. If the actions are not progressive by themselves (if they are not shown as progressive), the description will go without the continuous forms. The Continuous refers a to a definite time-point. The category of development undergoes explicit various reductions:
1. The unlimitive verbs are very easily neutralized Ex. The night is wonderfully silent. The stars shine with a fierce brilliancy, the Southern Cross and wind. The Duke's face seemed blushed, and more lined than some of his recent photographs showed. He held a glass in his hand.
2. As to the statal verbs, their neutralization amounts to a grammatical rule. They are so called "never-used-in-the-Continuous" verbs: a) the unique “to be” and “to have”; b) verbs of possession, verbs of relation, of physical perception, of mental perception
3. Worthy of note is the regular neutralization with the introductory verb supporting the participial construction of parallel action. Ex. He stood smoking a pipe. Not normally: He was standing smoking.
4. On the other hand, the Continuous can be used to denote habitual, recurrent actions. Continuous verb forms are more expressive than non-continuous - they are used in emotional speech. Ex.: He is always complaining.
5. Special note should be of the broadening use of the Continuous with unlimitive verbs. Here are some typical examples. Ex. I heard a rumor that a certain member here present has been seeing the prisoner this afternoon (E.M. Forster). I had a horrid feeling she was seeing right through me and knowing all about me. What matters is, you're being damn fools (A.Hailey)
6. Compare similar transpositions in the expressions of anticipated future. E.g.: Dr. Aarons will be seeing the patient this morning (A.Hailey). Soon we shall be hearing the news about the docking of the spaceships having gone through.
Since the neutralization of the Continuous with these verbs is quite regular, we have an emphatic reduction serving the purpose of speech expressiveness.
The Category of voice
The category of Voice expresses relations between the subject and the object of the action or between the subject and the action.
The opposition of the passive form of the verb to the active form of the verb expresses the voice of the English Verb. E.g.: writes - is written. The passive form is the strong member of the opposition. On the plane of expression it is marked by the combination of the auxiliary be with the Past Participle of the notional verb. The active form as a weak member of the opposition expresses "non-passivity". The Active Voice shows that the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action. The Passive Voice shows that the subject is acted upon. The agent may be expressed in the sentence and it's usually introduced with the help of the preposition by. Ex. The book is written by a young writer.
The sentence with the passive voice may include a means of the action, which is introduced, with the help of the conjunction with. Ex. The book is covered with a newspaper.
The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the English verb than in the system of the Russian verb, since in English not only transitive but also intransitive verbs can be used.
In accord with their relation to the passive voice, all the verbs can be divided into 2 large sets: the set of passivized verbs and the set of non-passivized verbs. In particular the passive is alien to many verbs of the statal subclass, such as have, belong, cost, resemble, fail, misgive, etc.
The demarcation line between the passivized and non-passivized set is not rigid, and the verbs of the non-passivized set may migrate into the passivized set in various contexts. Ex. The bed has not been slept in. The house seems not to have been lived in.
Sometimes the opposition between 2 forms may be reduced. It means that the verb may be used in the Active Voice form with the meaning of the Passive Voice. Usually we observe it with medial verbs and some authors speak of the medial Voice.
The matter is that verbs may be transitive (which require a subject and an object) and intransitive (which do not require an object) because an action of the verb is directed at a subject. Ex. He reads a book. She smiled.
Medial verbs do not require any subject but as the English sentence requires that the position of the subject should be filled in, then the object fills in the position of the subject. Ex. The book sells well.
Verbs that are Active in Form but Passive in Meaning
Some verbs which are usually followed by an object (to sell, to cut, to wash) can be used without an object and take on a passive meaning. In this, case, the person carrying out the action of the Verb is not referred to. Ex. This book sells well, i.e. it is sold to many people. The dress washes/irons, well, i.e. it is easily washed/ironed. This material makes up nicely into suits, i.e. it can be used by the tailor for making suits. The butter spreads easily, i.e. it can be spread easily. The bread is cutting badly because it's very soft, i.e. to cut the bread is difficult. Other tenses may also be used. The book sold well. The dress has washed well. The material will make up nicely.
Note: the verbs are followed by adverbs in the above examples. It is also possible to omit the adverb, if the meaning is clear. This is often the case in the question form and in the negative. E.g.: The book didn't sell, so it wasn't reprinted. The dress is very pretty. Will it wash? The material should make up into a winter dress, shouldn't it? Butter won’t spread when it's been in the fridge. Will the bread cut? If not, try the other knife.
There are some other verbs of this sort, with the nouns (subjects) that they are often used with in this construction
(A car) drives, steers
(A boat) sails
(A clock) winds up
(A door) locks, unlocks
(A book) reads well / easily, i.e. the book is good / easy to read.
Large native cigarettes smoked easily and coolly. The lion chops will eat better than they look.
When dealing with the category of Voice the problem is that the Passive Voice constructions coincide with the compound nominal predicate ( was opened ). If this construction (be + Participle II) expresses a state then it is a compound nominal predicate in the Active Voice. Ex. The window was broken and it was cold in the room. She was excited (a.v.) She was excited by the friend's words. (P. V.)
Besides there 2 Voice some authors speak of some more Voice forms. The most popular are the Reflexive Voice and the Reciprocal Voice and the Middle Voice. Ex. She dressed herself. They helped each other.
The reflexive and reciprocal pronouns should be looked upon as the voice auxiliaries. Such word combinations are treated as analytical verb forms of the Reflexive or Reciprocal voice . However we can't agree to the idea , because :
1. The reflexive/reciprocal pronouns preserve their lexical meaning but auxiliaries in analytical forms loose their meanings.
2. There are syntactic relations between the components. The reflexive / reciprocal pronouns are objects to the verbs. We can prove this by using homogeneous objects. Ex. He dressed himself and his brother. They praised one another and all the quests. He defended himself, a victim of the situation.
Hence, such word combinations are free word combinations. As for the Middle Voice, some authors find it when comparing the following sentences: Ex. He opened the door.-The door opened.
The Middle Voice uses are cases of neutralizing reduction of the voice oppositions. Ex. He broke the ice.-The ice broke.
The verbs are active in form, but passive in meaning. Ex. She was delightful to look at, witty to talk to.
Another case of neutralization: You are of mistaken (Passive in form, but active in meaning). It expresses a state.
The forms of the Active Voice can't be opposed and it there is no opposition we can't speak of any special grammatical category. In sentences like “the door opened” we should speak of medial verbs in the Active Voice.
Category of Tense
The Category of Tense is the basic verb category. It expresses the correlation between the action and event and objective time. We know that the actions or event can exist and develop only in time. The morphological category of tense reflects the objective logical category of time. But the difficulty is that the morphological category of tense doesn't always express the objective time. We should differentiate the notions of the objective and relative time. In the language we mostly deal not with objective but with relative time. We can speak of the objective-time only in those cases wnen the moment of speaking coensides with a developing action. But actually we take some moment of time as a starting point in reference to which all the actions are expressed.
If this starting point of time is taken in the plane including the moment of speaking then we deal with the Present tense.
Any action which proceeds this starting moment of time is expressed by the Past Tense. And finally, any action which follows this starting point of time is expressed by the Future Tense. So we differentiate 3 principal tense forms in English: Present, Past, Future.
In English there exists one more specific tense form which is called the "Future-in-the-Past". This tense form is used when we want to say that the action is treated as Future in reference to some Past moment of time.