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Inflation varies considerably in its extent and severity. Hence, the consequences for the business community differ according to circumstances. Mild inflation of a few per cent each year may pose few difficulties for business. However, hyperinflation, which entails enormously high rates of inflation, can create almost insurmountable problems for the government, business, consumers and workers. In post-war Hungary, the cost of living was published each day and workers were paid daily so as to avoid the value of their earnings falling. Businesses would have experienced great difficulty in costing and pricing their production while the incentive for people to save would have been removed.
INFLATION
Inflation is generally defined as a persistent rise in the general price level with no corresponding rise in output, which leads to a corresponding fall in the purchasing power of money.
In this section we shall look briefly at the problems that inflation causes for business and consider whether there are any potential benefits for an enterprise from an inflationary period.
Inflation varies considerably in its extent and severity. Hence, the consequences for the business community differ according to circumstances. Mild inflation of a few per cent each year may pose few difficulties for business. However, hyperinflation, which entails enormously high rates of inflation, can create almost insurmountable problems for the government, business, consumers and workers. In post-war Hungary, the cost of living was published each day and workers were paid daily so as to avoid the value of their earnings falling. Businesses would have experienced great difficulty in costing and pricing their production while the incentive for people to save would have been removed.
Economists argue at length about the causes of, and "cures" for, inflation. They would, however, recognize that two general types of inflation exist:
* Demand-pull inflation
* Cost-push inflation
Demand-pull Inflation.
Demand-pull inflation occurs when demand for a nation's goods and services outstrips that nation's ability to supply these goods and services. This causes prices to rise generally as a means of limiting demand to the available supply.
An alternative way that we can look at this type of inflation is to say that it occurs when injections exceed withdrawals and the economy is already stretched (i.e. little available labour or factory space) and there is little scope to increase further its level of activity.
Cost-push Inflation.
Alternatively, inflation can be of the cost-push variety. Tills takes place when firms face increasing costs. This could be caused by an increase in wages owing to trade union militancy, the rising costs of imported raw materials and components or companies pushing up prices in order to improve their profit margins.
THE IMPACT OF INFLATION ON BUSINESS
Inflation can adversely affect business in a number of ways:
Significant rates of inflation can cause accounting and financial
problems for businesses. They may experience difficulty in valuing assets
and stocks, for example. Such problems can waste valuable management time and make
forecasting, comparisons and financial control more onerous.
2. Falling sales.
Many businesses may experience falling sales during inflationary periods for two broad reasons. Firstly, it may be that saving rises in a time of inflation. We would expect people to spend more of their money when prices are rising to avoid holding an asset (cash), which is falling in value. However, during the mid-1970s, when industrialized nations were experiencing high inflation rates, savings as a proportion of income rose! It is not easy to identify the reason for this, but some economists suggest that people like to hold a relatively high proportion of their assets in a form which can be quickly converted into cash when the future is uncertain. Whatever the reason, if people save more they spend less and businesses suffer falling sales. The economic model predicts that if savings rose the level of activity in the economy would fall. Clearly, if this happened we would expect businesses to experience difficulty in maintaining their levels of sales.
Once again, the economic model can be used to predict that increases in the level of taxation will increase withdrawals, lowering the level of economic activity and depressing firms' sales
Not all businesses will suffer equally from declining demand in an inflationary period. Those selling essential items, such as food, may be little affected whilst others supplying less essential goods and services, such as foreign holidays, may be hard hit.
3. High interest rates.
Inflation is often accompanied by high interest rates. High interest rates tend to discourage investment by businesses as they increase the cost of borrowing funds. Thus, investment may fall. Businesses may also be dissuaded from undertaking investment programmes because of a lack of confidence in the future stability and prosperity of the economy. This fall in investment may be worsened by foreign investment being reduced as they also lose some confidence in the economy's future.
Such a decline in the level of investment can lead to businesses having to retain obsolete, inefficient and expensive means of production and cause a loss of international competitiveness. Finally, a fall in investment can lower the level of economic activity, causing lower sales, output and so on. Thus, to some extent, businesses can influence the economic environment in which they operate.
4. Higher costs.
During a bout of inflation firms will face higher costs for the resources they need to carry on their business. They will have to pay higher wages to their employees to compensate them for rising prices. Supplies of raw materials and fuel will become more expensive as will rents and rates. The inevitable reaction to this is that the firm has to raise its own prices. This will lead to further demands for higher wages as is called the wage-price spiral. Such cost-push inflation may make the goods and services produced by that enterprise internationally less competitive in terms of price. An economy whose relative or comparative rate of inflation is high may find that it is unable to compete in home or foreign markets because its products are expensive. The economic model tells us that a situation of declining exports and increasing imports will lower the level of activity in the economy with all the consequent side-effects.
CAN INFLATION BE BENEFICIAL
We would be simplifying the impact of inflation on business if we suggested that all effects were unfavourable. There is a school of thought, which argues that a low and stable rate of increase in the price level can be beneficial. It believes that a steady rise in money profits produces favourable expectations and 'induces investment as firms seek to expand. This action expands the economy as a whole. Paradoxically, inflation can also reduce the costs of businesses in the short run. Many enterprises incur costs, which are fixed for some period of time – for example, the rent of a factory may be fixed at a particular figure for a few years. At a time when the selling price of the firm's product, and hence its sales income, is rising this cost will be falling in real terms and thus stimulating the business.
There is a. further argument that firms may be persuaded to borrow heavily in a period of inflation since the burden of repaying loans is reduced by inflation. If inflation is running annually at 10 per cent, for example, then the real value of the repayments of the loan will fall by approximately that amount each year. This may serve to encourage investment which, since it is an injection into the circular flow, will promote the level of activity. However, in these circumstances interest rates are likely to be high.
Government will accept that low rates of inflation are likely to exist in many economies. Inflation rates of 5 per cent or below arc not considered to be too great a problem, especially if competitor nations are suffering similar rates.
In spite of the above, the conclusion must be drawn that inflation is, in general, harmful to business and its environment. Indeed, many economists would contend that inflation is the fundamental evil as its presence leads to lack of competitiveness and therefore relatively high unemployment and low rates of growth. This viewpoint has gained in credence in government circles over the last few years. It is for this reason that its control has been a major objective of government economic policy throughout the 1980s and early 1990s.
Инфляция в целом определяется
как постоянный рост общего уровня
цен без соответствующего роста
производства, что приводит к соответствующему
падению покупательной
Инфляция значительно
* инфляция спроса
* инфляция издержек
Инфляция спроса
Инфляция издержек
Влияние инфляции на бизнес
Инфляция может негативно
Значительные темпы инфляции могут привести к трудностям бухгалтерского учета и финансирования предприятий. Они могут испытывать трудности в оценке активов и акций, например. Такие проблемы могут тратить драгоценное время и сделать контроль за прогнозированием, сравнением и финансированием более затруднительными.
2. Снижение объема продаж
Многие компании могут испытать
падение продаж во время инфляционного
периода по двум основным причинам.
Во-первых, это может происходить,
потому что экономия возрастает в
период инфляции. Можно предположить,
что люди должны тратить больше денег,
когда цены растут, чтобы избавиться
от наличности(денежных средств), которая
падает в цене. Однако, в середине 1970-х
годов, когда промышленно развитые страны
испытывали высокие темпы инфляции, сбережения
в виде доли от дохода вырастали! Не
так легко определить причины для этого,
но некоторые экономисты предполагают,
что люди любят держать относительно
высокую долю своих активов в форме, которая
может быть быстро конвертированы в денежные
средства, когда будущее является неопределенным.
В любом случае, если люди сохраняют больше,
они тратят все меньше и предприятия страдают
от падения продаж. Экономическая модель
предсказывает, что если сбережения растут,
уровень активности в экономике будет
падать. Ясно, что если это произойдет,
будет ожидаемо, что предприятия испытают
трудности в поддержании уровня их
продаж.
4. Рост издержек производства
МОЖЕТ ЛИ ИНФЛЯЦИЯ БЫТЬ БЛАГОТВОРНОЙ?
Мы бы упростили влияние инфляции
на бизнес, если бы предположили, что
все ее эффекты были неблагоприятными.
Существует мнение, которое утверждает,
что низкие и стабильные темпы
роста уровня цен могут быть полезными.
Оно считает, что устойчивый рост
денежных доходов создает благоприятные
ожидания и побуждает росту инвестиций,
поскольку фирмы стремятся
Существует еще один аргумент, что
фирмы будут убеждены занимать значительные
средства в период инфляции, поскольку
бремя погашения кредитов снижает
инфляция. Если инфляция составляет ежегодно
10 процентов, например, то реальная стоимость
погашения кредита упадет примерно
на эту сумму каждый год. Это может
служить для поощрения
Несмотря на вышесказанное, должен
быть сделан вывод, что инфляция, как
правило, вредна для бизнеса и
его окружения. Действительно, многие
экономисты утверждают, что инфляция
является существенным злом, так как
его наличие приводит к низкой
конкурентоспособности и, следовательно,
относительно высокому уровню безработицы
и низким темпам роста. Эта точка
зрения получила сторонников в
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