Law

Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior. Laws are made by governments, specifically by their legislatures. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics and society in countless ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people.

A general distinction can be made between civil law jurisdictions (including Canon and Socialist law), in which the legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates their laws, and common law systems (including Islamic law), where judge-made binding precedents are accepted. Historically,religious laws played a significant role even in settling of secular matters, which is still the case in some countries, particularly Islamic.

The adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order and in which the guilty party may be imprisoned or fined. Civil law  deals with the resolution of lawsuits(disputes) between individuals or organizations. These resolutions seek to provide a legal remedy(often monetary damages) to the winning litigant.

1. What is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior?
2. Where may be influenced by the laws?
3. Who makes the laws?
4. What law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order and in which the guilty party may be imprisoned or fined?
5. What law  deals with the resolution of lawsuits(disputes) between individuals or organizations?

Law - право

judge-made - основанный на судебной практике

Criminal law  - криминальное право

disputes – оспаривать

govern behavior - управлять поведением

Civil law – гражданское право

remedy – исправление

litigant - истец

consolidates – объединение

encoded - зашифровывать 

The Constitution is the basic law of the state.

A normative legal act of higher legal force of a state or state-territorial Commonwealth in interstate associations, fixing the fundamentals of the political, economic and legal systems of the state or of the Commonwealth, the basis of the legal status of the state and the individual, their rights and duties. 
The Constitution in the material sense - a set of legal norms governing the highest bodies of the state, the order of their formation and functioning, their mutual relations and competence, as well as the fundamental position of the individual in relation to the state authorities. The Constitution in the material sense customary to classify, in particular, to the written and unwritten.

The right of the adoption of the Constitution can be granted:

• the constituent Assembly (for example, the Italian Constitution, the Constitution of India);
• the electoral management body by means of a referendum (under the French Constitution, the Constitution of Turkey);
• the head of the state (Constitution of Iran).

1. What is the basic law of the state?

2. As the Constitution is accepted to classify?
3. What country in which the Constitution is accepted by the head of state?
4. What country’s in which the Constitution is accepted by the electoral management body by means of a referendum?
5. What country’s in which the Constitution is accepted by the constituent Assembly?

Commonwealth – Содружества

state-territorial  - государственно-территориальный

highest bodies – высокопоставленные лица

customary – общепринятые

classify – классифицируется

in particular - в частности

electoral - избирательный

by means of a referendum – по средствам референдума

the head of the state – глава государства

 

 

 

A president is a leader of an organization, company, community, club, trade union, university, country, a division or part of any of these, or, more generally, anything else.

Etymologically, a president is one who presides. Originally, the term referred to the presiding officer of a ceremony or meeting, but today it most commonly refers to an official. Among other things, "President" today is a common title for the heads of state of most republics, whether popularly elected, chosen by the legislature or by a special electoral college.

As the country's head of state, in most countries the president is entitled to certain perquisites, and may have a prestigious residence; often a lavish mansion or palace, sometimes more than one (e.g. summer and winter residence, country retreat) – for symbols of office, such as an official uniform, decorations, a presidential seal, coat of arms, flag and other visible accessories; military honours such as gun salutes, Ruffles and flourishes, and a presidential guard. A common presidential symbol is the presidential sashes worn by mostly Latin American presidents as a symbol of the presidency's continuity, and presenting the sash to the new president.

1. Who is leader?
2. What is among other things, "President" today?
3. At what is entitled the president in most countries?
4. Which of the following were the Latin American presidents?
5. What is a symbol of office, such as an official uniform, decorations, a presidential seal, coat of arms, flag and other visible accessories?

Etymologically - Этимологически

honours - соблюдать

trade union - профсоюз

division – подразделение

certain perquisites - определенные льготы

prestigious residence – престижное место жительства

Ruffles – рябь

Lavish- щедрый

Seal- печать

 

 

Parliament of  France

Originally, there was only the Parliament of Paris, born out of the Curia Regis in 1307, and located inside the medieval royal palace, now the Paris Hall of Justice. The jurisdiction of the Parliament of Paris covered the entire kingdom. In the thirteenth century, judicial functions were added. In 1443, following the turmoil of the Hundred Years' War, King Charles VII of France granted Languedoc its own parliament by establishing the Parliament of Toulouse, the first parliament outside of Paris, whose jurisdiction extended over the most part of southern France. From 1443 until the French Revolution several other parliaments were created in some provinces of France (Grenoble, Bordeaux).

All the parliaments could issue regulatory decrees for the application of royal edicts or of customary practices; they could also refuse to register laws that they judged contrary to fundamental law or simply as being untimely. Parliamentary power in France was suppressed more so than in England as a result of absolutism, and parliaments were eventually overshadowed by the larger Estates General, up until the French Revolution, when the National Assembly became the lower house of France's bicameral legislature.

1. What Parliament existed first?
2. In what century, judicial functions were added?
3. That may issue Parliament?
4. Where parliamentary sovereignty was depressed more, than in England?
5. In what has become the National Assembly?

Estates General - Генеральные Штаты

National Assembly – Национальная ассамблея

jurisdiction – юрисдикция

kingdom – королевство

judicial functions – судебные функции

eventually – в конечном счете

overshadowed – омраченный

bicameral - двухпалатная

legislature – законодательная власть

 

From Monday to Thursday the House of Commons, when in session, meets daily in the early afternoon. Most members of the House of Commons do not attend Parliament all the time it is in session, but at least 50 members must be present. If a member calls for a «Count»  and fewer than this number are present, the House is adjourned.

The House of Lords meets on only three days a week, for hours. Not more than 100 peers take part in the regular work of the House. The rest of them appear only on ceremonial occasions.

There is a chair at the top of the House of Commons, in which sits Mr Speaker or his deputy when the House is in session. Every member entering or leaving the House is supposed to bow to the chair — not to the occupant, for the chair may be empty; still they must bow. Some members make quite a ceremony of it.

1. When the House of Commons meets daily?
2. Do Most members of the House of Commons attend Parliament all the time it is in session, or do not?
3. How many members must be present at the session of the House of Commons?
4. When do most of the members of House of Lords appear in the House?
5. When must the members bow to the chair?

The House of Lords – палата лордов

House of Commons - палата общин

Fewer - меньше

adjourned - прервался.

appear - появиться

only - только

ceremonial occasions - церемониальные случаи

deputy - представитель

supposed - воображаемый

occupant - житель

empty - пустой

 

The last time I went to Exham I lost my lighter. The lighter was old but it had been a present from my mother. I tried hard to remember where and how I could have lost it. I wondered when I had last used it. At first I could not remember. Then I knew. It had been on that bus I had taken on my way back from the National Gallery to the boarding-house. An old man had asked me to give him a light and I had. I well remembered how he handed the lighter back to me, so it must have disappeared either while I was on the bus or later, in the street, between the bus stop and my boarding-house because it was there that I discovered my loss.

So I decided to get in touch with the police. Off I went. The moment I stepped outside the door I realized it was raining hard, so I returned to my room to take my umbrella.

I reported my loss to the officer on duty at the enquiry desk saying that the lighter had my initials engraved on it: N. S. «Very well. Let's see the lost-and-found book». The police officer lifted a heavy black book on to his desk, opened it, and ran his finger down the page. «Quite a few things have been brought in from all over the district today. Keys, wallet, glasses, handbag, bottle of whisky, right glove, umbrella, pocket transistor, two books, camera...» The officer continued his list of objects for a little longer and then suddenly he raised his voice: «Lighter! What did you say your initials are, sir?» «N. S., sergeant». «And N. S. they are». 
1. Where did he think he lost the lighter?

2. What did he take with him when he went to the police station?

3. What did he realize when he got home?

4. Where did went to Exham I lost my lighter?

5. Do I returne to my room to take my umbrella, or don’t?

boarding-house - пансион

lighter - легче

National Gallery - Национальная галерея

Realized - понял

Umbrella - зонтик

enquiry - запрос

initials - инициалы

engraved - выгравированный

lost-and-found - служба по розыску пропавшего багажа

wallet - бумажник

glasses - очки

handbag - сумочка

bottle of whisky - бутылка виски

right glove - правильная перчатка

 

Mr and Mrs Barker were having a quiet day at home. Their 17-year-old daughter was away in Scotland staying with a friend. At 12 noon, Mr and Mrs Barker got a phone call from the friend where their daughter was supposed to be staying, saying that she had disappeared. They were just about to call the police when the phone rang again. A hoarse voice informed Mr Barker that his daughter had been kidnapped and that unless he paid a ransom of $ 1000 he would never see his daughter alive again. When Mr Barker inquired who the caller was, the voice answered that it was someone he knew well. The voice then gave him instructions about where and when to hand over the money. He was warned not to tell the police or to attempt to have the phone call traced. Mr Barker went to the bank and immediately withdrew the money out of his bank account and left on the next train to Brighton. When he arrived, he entered the Grand Hotel at five to six and carefully placed the briefcase beside a sofa as arranged. At six o'clock precisely, a woman in a scarf and raincoat approached, took the briefcase and walked quickly away.

At 10 p.m. the same evening, to his great relief, his daughter returned home. She could hardly refrain from laughing. Imagine his surprise when she handed him his briefcase containing the $ 1000. It turned out that she and her friend had decided to play a practical joke. It was she who had put on a hoarse voice to phone her father and it was she who had collected the briefcase in Brighton. The joke had succeeded but, strangely enough, Mr And Mrs Barker did not appreciate it as much as their daughter did. 

1. What did the daughter's friend phone to say? 
   2. Where did Mr Barker have to go with the money? 
   3. Where did he put the money? 
   4. What was his daughter's explanation?

5. Was he warned not to tell the police or to attempt to have the phone call traced, or wasn’t?

Kidnapped – похищенный

Supposed - воображаемый

A hoarse voice - Хриплый голос

Traced - прослеженный

immediately - немедленно

withdrew - ушел

entered - вступил

carefully - тщательно

scarf - шарф

raincoat - плащ

approached - приблизился

briefcase  - портфель 

appreciate - ценить

 

 

Two students who took part in the killing in February last year of an Indian diplomat, Mr. Ravindra Mhatre, were convicted of murder at Birmingham Crown Court.

Mohammed Riaz, aged 23, a student, of Jarrom Street, Leicester, and Abdul Raja, aged 21, a student, of rue de la Butte, Blauchet, Paris, both Kashmiris, were convicted on a majority verdict of eleven to one.

They were remanded in custody for sentencing with four others who have admitted taking part in the kidnapping plot.

The court heard how Mr. Mhatre, the assistant commissioner at the Indian High Commission in Birmingham, was kidnapped as he returned to his home in Bartley Green, on the outskirts of city.

He was held prisoner in Birmingham for three days before being driven to a lane in Leicestershire, where he was shot three times at point-blank range.

Mr. Igor Judge, QC, for the prosecution, said: «This happened to a man with no known enemies. It happened to a man who had never caused offence to the defendants or any of those involved in the problems thousands of miles away».

1. What was the verdict for the students? 
    
   2. When was the diplomat kidnapped? 
    
   3. What did the prosecution say about him?

4. Are they remanded in custody for sentencing with four others who have admitted taking part in the kidnapping plot, or not?

5. Who is Mr. Mhatre?

the Indian High Commission in Birmingham -  индийская высокая комиссия в Бирмингеме

convicted - осужденный

murder - убийство

Birmingham Crown Court - Бирмингемский королевский суд.

in custody - в заключении

sentencing - приговор

commissioner - комиссар

outskirts - предместья

prisoner - заключенный

driven - ведомый

shot - выстрел

point-blank - решительно

QC - КОРОЛЕВСКИЙ АДВОКАТ

Prosecution - судебное преследование

 

The lady or the tiger?

Once a king had decreed that every person accused of crime should be placed in a large room, where, in the presence of the king and the court he is to open one of two doors which were exactly alike. Behind one door was a hungry, man-eating tiger and behind the other a beautiful lady, dressed as a bride. If he opened the door which concealed the tiger he was considered to be guilty and put to death, if he opened the door which concealed the lady, he was considered innocent and was immediately married to her. No previous ties were allowed to be an obstacle to marriage. The disposition of the lady and the tiger was, of course, a secret.

Now it happened that a young noble man who was rather poor won the love of the king's daughter; and being suspected by the king was imprisoned and brought to trial before two doors. The princess discovered behind which doors the lady and the tiger were to be placed. She didn't want, of course, her lover to be eaten by tiger, but she also didn't want him to become the husband of some other lady. At length her mind was made up. On the day of the trial she managed to signal her lover to open the right-hand door. This he immediately did. The author leaves the question to you: «Who came out of the opened door — the lady or the tiger?»

1. Who was placed behind the doors? 
 
2. What would happen if the door which concealed the tiger was opened? 
 
3. What would happen if the door which concealed the lady was opened? 
 
4. What was the princess" decision?

5. If he did open the door which concealed the lady, he was considered innocent and was immediately married to her, or not?

accused of crime - обвиняемый в преступлении

in the presence - в присутствии

court - суд

bride - невеста

guilty - виновный

death - смерть

immediately - немедленно

married - женатый

disposition - расположение

noble - благородный

rather - скорее

won - победил

 

 

Bribery stopped 

It happened in America not long after its colonization by the Spaniards. A Spaniard stole an Indian's horse. The Indian however found the thief and demanded the horse to be returned to him, but the Spaniard refused to do it. The Indian applied to the court and brought witnesses who could testify that it was his horse. But the judge of the court was a bad man and used to take bribes from the parties who came to the court. The Indian knew this, and he invented a trick how to deceive the judge. Before going to the court on the day of the trial, he took a big stone and put it under his arm. The judge at once noticed that the Indian had something under his arm and decided the case in the Indian's favour. He ordered the horse to be returned to the Indian and punished the Spaniard for theft. After the trial, when the judge and the Indian were left alone, the judge asked the former what it was under his arm and whom it was meant for. The Indian showed him the stone and told it was meant for the judge in case he would had decided in the Spaniard's favour. It was a good lesson for the bad judge, and he gave up the habit of taking bribes.

1. What did a Spaniard do? 
 
2. Where did the Indian apply? 
 
3. What kind of a man was the judge of the court? 
 
4. What did the Indian invent? 
 
5. What did the Indian tell the judge?

Colonization – колонизация

Favour – польза

However - однако,

Refused - отказался

Brought - принесенный

Witnesses - свидетели

Testify - свидетельствовать

Bribes - взятки

Invented - изобретенный

a trick - уловка

judge - судья

trial – испытание

noticed - замеченный