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Lecture № 1.
Lexicology (Fundamentals)
Lecture # 2
The Etymology of English Words
Lecture # 3
Morphological structure of English words
Lecture 4
Wordbuilding
Lecture # 6
Plan
1. Meaning of a word.
2. Semantic structure of the word.
3. Polysemy.
4. Main types of lexical meanings of the word.
Lecture # 7
Semantic changes
Plan
1. Causes of semantic changes.
2. Main ways of semantic changes: specialization, generalization, metaphor, metonymy.
3. Secondary ways of semantic changes: elevation, degradation, hyperbole, litotes.
Lecture # 8
Homonymy
Lecture # 9
Synonyms. Antonyms
Lecture # 10
VARIETIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
LEXICOGRAPHY
Classification of dictionaries
Romanic borrowings include Latin, French, Italian and Spanish borrowings.
Many Latin words were borrowed during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire: street, port, wall. A lot of Latin (and Greek) words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings: alter, cross, dean, church, angel, devil.
Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at that time: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto. Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English. They are numerous in medecine: aspirin, appendicitis, in chemistry: valency, acid, in technology: antenna, airdrome, biplane, in politics: socialism, militarism. In philology most terms are of Greek origin: homonym, archaism, lexicography.
French borrowings came into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling. Documents were written by French scribes because local population was illiterate and the ruling class was French. For example, French scribes substituted the letter u before the letters v, m, n and the digraph th by the letter o to escape the combination of many vertical lines: sunu – son, luvu – love.
There are some semantic groups of French borrowings:
Italian borrowings are terms of music: alto, baritone, duet, quartet, violin, libretto. Among the Italian borrowings are also gazette, incognito, autostrada, fiasco, dilettante, grotesque.
Spanish borrowings came into English through its American variant: cargo, embargo, tango, rumba, guitar, bananas, ananas.
Germanic borrowings include Scandinavian, German and Dutch borrowings.
In the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. There are about 700 Scandinavian words in English. They are bull, cake, egg, knife, window, happy, ill, low, ugly, call, get, give, die, same, both, they, them, their.
There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Among German borrowings are cobalt, zinc, wolfram, iceberg, Kindergarten, Bundeswehr, gestapo, Volkswagen, Gaistarbaiter.
Holland and England had constant interrelations and more than 2000 Dutch words were borrowed into English mainly in the 14th century. Most of them are nautical terms: skipper, keel, dock, reef, deck, pump.
Etymological doublets.
Sometimes a word is borrowed rwice from the same language. As a result, there are two different words with different spellings and differernt meanings but historically they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological doublets. Among etymological doublets are the following: money / mint, chamber / camera, castle / chateau, whole / hale.
International words.
The process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which they serve to express. So, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words. Examples of international words are: concerts, piano, antibiotics, bionics, anaconda, orang-outang, football, tennis, time, shorts, leggings.
To sum up the lecture it is necessary to say that English includes etymologically different words which have been coexisting for centuries.
. Проблема
продуктивности
Lecture # 3
Morphological structure of English words
Plan
1. Morphemes. Combining forms. Allomorphs.
2. Morphological classification of words.
3. Analysis into immediate constituents.
Literature
1. The word morpheme is derived from Greek morphe -form. A morpheme is an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. Unlike a word, which is also an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern a morpheme is not autonomous. Morphemes occur only as a constituent parts of words, not independently, though a word may consist of one morpheme. Morphemes are not divisible into smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit.
Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound. A morpheme is said to be free if it may stand alone without changing its meaning, for exemple: cat, sport, always. A morpheme is called bound because it is bound to something else. For exemple, in the word sportive sport- is a free morpheme, it can be used independently, there is the word sport. The morpheme -ive is a bound morpheme, it can not be used alone, there is no word like ive.
Free lexical morphemes are roots of words.
Free grammatical morphemes are function words such as articles, conjuctions and prepositions.
Bound lexical morphemes are affixes. Affixes are subdivided into prefixes, suffixes, infixes, combining forms or completives. Bound grammatical morphemes are endings (inflexions). For exemple: -s for the plural of nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs and so on.
A prefix is a morpheme standing before a root and modifying its meaning, for exemple: hearten – dishearten. In some cases prefixes not only modify the meaning of a word but can form words of a different part of speech. For exemple: earth is a noun, to unearth is a verb. Prefixes can also express the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs, for exemple: to stay – to outstay.
A suffix is a morpheme following the root or a stem and forming a new word of a different part of speech or a different word class of the same part of speech. For exemple, the suffixes -en, -y, -less form such words of different parts of speech as hearten, hearty, heartless. The suffixes -ify, -er are verb-forming suffixes, but the suffix -ify forms causative verbs, for exemple: horrify, purify, while the suffux -er forms frequentative verbs, for exemple: flicker, shimmer, twitter.
An infix is an affix placed within the word, like -n- in stand, like -s- in statesman. Infixes are rare in the English language.
A combining form or completive is a bound form which can be distringuished from an affix historically. Combining forms are always borrowed from Latin or Greek. In Latin or Greek combining forms existed as free forms, as separate words. In English combining forms occur in compound and derivative words as their parts. These compound and derivative words did not exist in Latin or Greek, they were formed only in modern times in English. For exemple: megapolis (from mega- Greek and polis - Greek), AIDSophobia (from phobia – Latin), autocue (from auto - Greek), chimponaut (from naut - Greek). Combining forms are mostly international.
Some morphemes may have variants. For exemple, -ion, -sion, -tion, -ation are variants of the same suffix. They do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form which depends on the final sound of the preceding stem. Such variants are called allomorphs. An allomorph is from Greek allos – другой.
Analysing all the grammatical forms of a word, that is its paradigm, we may see the part which remains unchanged through the whole paradigm. This unchanged part is a stem of a word. Stems may be free or bound, simple or derived. For exemple, the paradigm of the adjective clean is clean – cleaner – cleanest. The stem of the word clean is clean-. This stem is free, not bound, because there is an independent word clean. At the same time, this stem is simple, because it coincides with the root of the word clean. In the words cordially and cordiality the stem is cordia-l. This stem is free as there exist the word cordial. But it is not a simple stem, it is a derived stem consisting of the root cord- and a suffix -ial. Bound stems are characteristic of loan words. Take for exemple French borrowings arrogance, charity, courage, coward, distort, involve, notion, legible. After the affixes of these words are taken away the remaining stems are arrog-, char-, cour-, cow-,-tort, -volve, not-, leg-. They are bound stems, they do not exist independently. Of course, the words cow, not, leg do exist, but the meaning of the stems -cow, not-, leg- and the meaning of the separate words cow, not, leg is different.
Stems have not only the lexical meaning, but also grammatical, part-of-speech meaning. They can be noun stems, as gir-l in the adjective girlish. They can be adjective stems, as girlish- in the noun girlishness. Stems can also be verb stems as in the noun expellee. Stems differ from words by the absence of inflexions in their structure, they can be used only in the structure of words.
2. According to the nature and the number of morphemes constituing a word there are different structural types of words in English: simple, affixed, compound, compound-affixed.
Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion. In many cases the inflexion is zero, for exemple: seldom, chair, asked, speaking.
Affixed words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inflexion, for exemple: unemployed, underground, overestimation.
Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion, for exemple: wait-and-see, forget-me-not, baby-moons.
Compound-affixed words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, for exemple: job-hopper, autotimer, hydroskimmer.
3. To define a structural type of a word, that is, to accomplish a morphological analysis, it is necessary to use the analysis into immediate constituents. It was first suggested by an American scientist L. Bloomfield. Immediate constituents are any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unity. The main constituents are un affix and a stem.
L. Bloomfield analyzed the word ungentlemanly.
In the first stage of the analysis one breaks the word ungentlemanly into two immediate constituents: un + gentlemanly. The morpheme u- is a negative prefix, one has come across words built on the pattern un + stem: uncertainly, uncomfortably etc. And the adjective gentlemanly exists in the English language.
In the second stage one separates the stem gentleman and the morpheme ly. In English there are many words with the pattern stem + ly: womanly, masterly etc. There is also the noun gentleman. The immediate constituents of this pattern have the same semantic relationship: having the quality of the person denoted by the stem. Besides, there is the noun gentleman.
In the first two stages of the analysis one separated a free and a bound forms: un + gentlemanly and gentleman + ly.
In the third stage the cut gentle + man has its pecularities. The morpheme gentle is a stem. The element man may be classified as a semi-bound affix or as a variant of the free form man. A similar pattern can be found in the word nobleman.
To sum up: as one breaks the word, one obtains at any level only two immediate cobstituents, one of which is a stem. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a result, we get the following formula: un + (gentle + man) + ly.
The above procedure is an elementary case of the analysis. There are complicated, open or unresolved cases.
An American scientist Eugine Nida discusses the morphological structure of the word untruly. This word might, it seems, be divided either un + truly or un + true + ly. E. Nida notices that the prefix un- is very rarely combined with adverb stems and is freely combined with the adjective stems. So the immediate constituents of the word untruly is untrue + ly. Other exemples of the same patterns are uncommonly, unlikely.
Some linguists think that words like pocket cannot be subjected to morphological analysis. They say that in the words pocket, hogget, locket it is possible to single out a diminutive suffix -et. In the words hogget, locket the remaining parts, that is, hog- and lock- are stems because there are independent words hog and lock. At the same time the remaining part of the word pocket, that is, pock- cannots be regarded as a stem. The element pock- does not exist independently.
Russian scientist Aлександр Иванович Смирницкий does not share the opinion of E. Nida. He believes that the stem is morphologically divisible if at least one of its elements belongs to a regular correlation. It means that if we agree that et- in the words pocket, hogget, locket is a suffix, we must agree that the elements pock-, hog, lock are stems. The words like pocket can be subjected to morphological analysis.
There are also cases, especially among borrowed words, that defy analysis altogether: calendar, perestroika.
+3
Plan
Literature
1. Wordbuilding is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of wordbuilding in Modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation.
There are also secondary ways of wordbuilding: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation.
Affixation has been one of the most productive ways of wordbuilding throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
The first function of suffixes is to form one part of speech from another. The second function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.
There exist different classifications of suffixes: part of speech classification, semantic classification, lexico-grammatucal character of the stem, origion of affixes, productivity, structure.
According to the part of speech classification, suffixes are divided into:
Semantic classification arranges suffixes in accordance with the lexical meaning of the stem. For exemple, noun-forming suffixes can denote:
-the agent of the action: -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student),
-nationality: -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), - ish (English),
-collectivity: - ry (peasantry), -ship (readership), - ati (literati),
-diminutiveness: -ie (horsie), -ling (gooseling), -y (hanky) etc.
Classification of suffixes according to lexico-grammatical character of the stem supposes that suffixes can be added to certain groups of stems:
-suffixes added to verbal stems: -er (commuter), -able (flyable), -ing (suffering),
-suffixes added to noun stems: -ess (smogless), -ful (roomful), -nik (filmnik),
-suffixes added to adjective stems: -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).
Classification of suffixes according to their origin allows to distinguish:
-native (Germanic) suffixes: -er (teacher), -ed (talented), -teen (sixteen),
-Romanic suffixes: -age (carriage), -ment (development), -ate (dictate),
-Greek suffixes: -ize (organize), - ism (capitalism), -ist (racist) etc.
The term borrowed affixes is not very exact as affixes are never borrowed as suffixes, but only as parts of borrowed words. To enter the morphological system of the English language a borrowed affix, both a suffix and a prefix, must satisfy certain conditions. The borrowing of an affix is possible only:
-if the the number of words containing this affix is considerable,
-if its meaning and function are definite and clear,
-if its structural pattern corresponds to the structural patterns already existing in the language.
Productivity classification of affixes points out the following groups:
-productive: -ly (wetly), -ize (specialize), -er (dancer),
-semi-productive: -eer (profiteer), -ward (skyward), -ette (kitchenette),
-non-productive: -ard (drunkard), -th (length) etc.
According to the structure suffixes are divided into:
-simple: -er (speaker), -ist (dramatist),
compound: -ical (ironical), -ation (formation), -manship (sportsmanship), -ably / ibly (terribly, reasonably) etc.
Some suffixes can be polysemantic. For exemple, -er can form nouns with the following meanings: an agent or a doer of the action expressed by the stem (porter), a profession or an occupation (baker), a device or a tool (transmitter).
There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root in the structure of a word. In such cases these disputable morphemes are called semi-affixes. Words with semi-affixes can be classified either as affixed words or as compound words. For exemple: -gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic), -man (postman) etc.
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs.
Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes, they are bound morphemes: unhappy, rewrite, antiwar etc. Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words: overhead – over the table.
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But some prefixes can form one part of speech from another. They are en / em-, a-, pre-, non-, anti- etc. For exemple the prefix be- forms verbs with adjective stems, and noun stems: to belittle, to befriend, to bemadam.
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
-prefixes of negative meaning: in- (invaluable), non- (non-person, non-book, nonformal), un- (unfree),
-prefixes denoting repetition or reversative actions: de- (decolonize), dis-(disconnect), un- (unpack),
-prefixes denoting time, space, degree: inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), pre- (preelection), ex- (ex-student) etc.
2. Origin of prefixes:
-native (Germanic): under- (undernourish), over- (overfeed),
-Romanic: in- (inactive), de- (demobilize), re- (redo),
-Greek: sym- (sympathy), hyper- (hypertension) etc.
When we analyze such words as adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word verb, company, we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as affixed words. But some scientists treat them as simple words.
Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as contain, retain, detain or conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that con- and de- act as prefixes and tain-, ceive- can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as affixed words.
There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists. For exemple after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers treat such words as compound words, British lexicographers treat them as affixed ones.
Composition
2. Сomposition is the way of wordbuilding when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends on the following factors:
- the unity of stress,
- spelling,
- semantic unity,
- unity of morphological and syntactical functioning.
These are characteristics of compounds in all languages. For English some of these factors are not reliable. As a rule, English compounds have one uniting stress on the first component: hat-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in English compouns, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component: blood-vessel. The main stress can also be on the second component: snow-white, sky-blue. Besides, the stress may be phonological and help to differentiate the meaning of compounds: overwork – overwork, bookcase – bookcase.
Spelling in English compounds is not reliable as well. English compounds can have different spelling even in the same text: war-ship can be spelt through a hyphen, with a break or solidly.
The semantic unity of English compounds may be different. There are compounds in which the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components: ghostwrite, skinhead, braindrain. There are componds the meaning of which is deduced from the meaning of the components: to blood-transfuse, airbus, astrodynamics.
English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically: These girls are chatter-boxes. The compound chatter-boxes is a predicative here and only the second component changes grammatically.
There are two characteristic features of English compounds: