Main types of English dictionaries.

herring is not motivated.

One and the same word-group can be polysemous , with one meaning that is motivated , and one that is

not, cf red carpet ‘carpet of red colour’; a special ‘treatment given to very important or honorable visitors’.

Non-motivated word-groups are called phraseological units.

LECTURE 9. PHRASEOLOGY

• Motivated and non-motivated word-groups

Lexically motivated word-groups: heavy weight, take lessons

Lexically non-motivated: red tape ‘beaurocracy’, , ‘serious or solemn part in a theatrical play’;

take place ‘occur’.

• Degree of motivation can vary, cf: Black dress ‘a dress of black colour’ – black market ‘a secret

market’ – black death ‘a form of plague epidemic in Europe in the 14th century’; apple sauce ‘sauce

made of apples’ & ‘nonsense’.

• Non-motivated word-groups: phraseological units (American and British linguists use the term

idioms).

The treatment of phraseological units in dictionaries: foreign dictionaries do not discriminate between

idioms, unconventional English and slang; word-groups, sayings and proverbs

• Synonymous terms: phraseological units, set-phrases, idioms, word-equivalents. Set phrases

emphasize stability; idioms – lack of motivation (idiomaticity) . the term ‘idiom’ is synonymous to

‘phraseological unit’; word-eqivalents stress the structural inseparability and the capacity of certain

word-groups to function as a single word.

• Definitions of phraseological units:

o non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made in speech but are ready-made. The

concept of ready made is subject to criticism: various linguistic phenomena can be

described as ready-made, ranging from words to sentences. (proverbs, sayings), set-

phrases, such as Good morning, and quotations.

o word-groups with a non-variable or stable context. Free word-groups allow the substitution of

the members, e.g. a small room, a small business , a small farmer. The meaning of on

emember is determined by the meaning of the other, cf small (small room) ‘space’; small

business, small farmer ‘capital’. Small hours ‘the early hours of morning from about 1 a.m to

4 p.m.’, small beer ‘weak ‘ – only in combintion with these nouns.

Exceptions: to wag one’s tail, to shrug one’s shoulders. The contexts are stable , yet, the word-

groups are not idiomatic.

• Classifications of phraseological units can be based either on the degree of motivation / or on the

syntactic function of units in speech.

the degree of motivation: Fusions, phraseological unities, phraseological combinations / collocations.

o

o

Fusions: the highest degree of component blending, e.g. tit for tat ‘зуб за зуб, око за око’.

Fusions are language specific and do not lend themselves to translation

Phraseological unities are motivated, e.g. To stick to one’s guns ‘to keep to one’s views /

opinion, etc., to refuse to change one’s views or opinions in the face of the opposition’.

Phraseological unities allow synonymous substitution, e.g. , are transklateble; some of them

are international, cf to know the way the wind is blowing.

o Phraseological combinations (collocations): motivated, with one component in the direct

meaning and others in figurative meanings: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the

requirement ‘соответствовать требованию’ и т.п.

Commentary: the degree of idiomaticity is evaluated differently by different speakers. To take tea, to take

care are idiomatic for the Russian speaker; non-idiomatic for the French speaker, cf prendre du thé,

prendre soin. For the English idiomatic are such groups as red tape, or kick the bucket ‘die’.

the syntactic function: set expressions are classified into those functioning

- as nominal phrases: cat’s paw ‘somebody ewho is used for the convenience of а

cleverer and stronger person (cf Russian чужими руками жар загребать);

- as verbs: pick and choose; to give one the bird ‘to fire smb’

- as adjectives: high and mighty; as mad as a hunter

- as adverbs: by hook or by crook, before one can say Jack Robinson ‘very quickly’

- as interjections: Hang it all !

- as utterances: Take it easy! His bark is worse than its bite.

•

Peculiarities of phraseological units: their stability is enhanced by euphonic qualities (rhythm, rhyme ,

reiteration, alliteration), imagery, expressive means, and the use of obsolete words.

o Euphonic qualities:

- Rhythm: far and wide / far and near ‘in a very big number of places’ or ‘over a very

large distance’ e.g. The drum was heard far and wide by fits amd starts ‘irregularly’,

heartand soul ‘with complete devotion to the case’.

- Reiteration: on and on

- Rhythm and alliteration: part and parcel ‘an essential and necessary part of smth’,

with might and main ‘with all one’s powers’ , rack and ruin ‘ a state of neglect and

collapse’. Cf the effect of the substitution: safe and sound – secure and uninjured.

- Rhyme : out and about ’able to go out’ , used about a convalescent person; high and

dry ’left without help’, orig. about a ship.

- Obsolete words: in phras. Units consisting of two words, one is an obsolete word,

synonymous to the other, e.g.: main (a syn. for might, ‘strength’); hue (a syn. for cry);

leave in the lurch (lurch ‘ambush’ засада ); not a whit ‘not at all’ (whit ‘the smallest

thing imaginable’, not used outside the phrase).

- Rhyme and synonyms: fair and square ‘honest’, by hook or by crook ‘ by any method’

Imagery: simile, contrast, metaphor, synonymy.

- Simile: as like as two peas; as old as the hills and older than the hills;

- Contrast: by wear or tear; for love or money

- Metaphor: to swallow a pack of lies

Combinations of features: as good as gold; as please as Punch; as fit as a fiddle ; as cross as two sticks

(based on a pun)

o