Phonetics as a branch of linguistics

CONTENTS

I. Introduction

II. Main part

1. Phonetics as a Branch of linguistics

2. Aspects, Types and methods of phonetics

3. History of phonetics

III. Conclusion

IV. Bibliography

I. Introduction

This course paper is dedicated to the theme “Phonetics as a branch of linguistic”. The study of phonetics and phonetics as a branch of linguistic has always been one of the most interesting, disputable and important problems of theoretical phonetics of modern English. Phonetics is a field in linguistics that specializes in studying single sounds within language. Phonetics concerns itself with how the sounds are produced, how they sound to other listeners and how the brain perceives the sounds. Like all linguistic fields, phonetics studies all languages.

The main aim of the present course paper is to give information about phonetics and its contribution in linguistic.

The main aim of our present research puts forward the following tasks to fulfill:

-Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech is made with the mouth, tongue and lungs.

-Acoustic phonetics is the study of how speech sounds acoustically, such as speech frequency and harmonics.

-Auditory phonetics is the study of how speech is perceived by the brain.

The main material of given course paper is taken from different books on theoretical and practical phonetics as such English Phonetics: a Theoretical Phonetics of Modern English (by Abduazizov A.A. T., '1986), a Theoretical Course. SEMINAR (by Sokolova M.A. and others. M., 1991), a Theoretical Course of English Phonetics (by Leontyeva S. F. M., 2002), a Theoretical Course (by Vassilyev V. A. M., 1970), a Pronunciation Theory of English (by Alimardanov R. A. T., 2009).

The theoretical value of the present course paper is that the theoretical part of the work can be used in delivering lectures on the Theoretical Phonetics of Modern English.

The practical value of the present course paper is that the practical results gained by investigating the giving problem may be used as examples or mini-tests in seminars and practical lessons of English Phonetics.

Structurally the present research work consists of four parts – Introduction, Main part, Conclusion and Bibliography.

II. Main part

1. PHONETICS AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS

Language as “the most important means of human intercourse” exists in the material form of speech sounds. It cannot exist without being spoken. Oral speech is primary process of communication by means of language. Written speech is secondary; it presents what exists in oral speech.¹

Linguistic signals first said to be composed of some units, which are divided into significant and non - significant ones. The relationship between all the units or elements of a language includes different notions starting from sounds, morphemes, words, word combinations and ending up with phrases. The scientific study of a language involves an explanation of a mass of notions in terms of a rigorously organized and highly patterned system - the link between the units. The whole system of relation of linguistic units forms a system of a language. The character of a system, or the way this system works explain the structure of a language. All languages differ in systems and structures.

Phonetics is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized or given audible shade: the nature of these noises, their combinations, and their functions in relation to the meaning. Phonetics studies the sound system of the language, that is segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic structure and intonation.

It is primarily concerned with expression level. However, phonetics is obliged to take the content into consideration too, because at any stage of the analysis, a considerable part of the phonetician's concern is with the effect which the expression unit he is examining and its different characteristics have on meaning.

Only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech, and the science of phonetics, in principle at least, is concerned only with such sounds produced by a human vocal apparatus as are or may be earners of organized information of language.

Consequently, phonetics is important in the study of language. An understanding it is a prerequisite to any adequate understanding of the structure of working of language. No kind of linguistic study can be made with but consonant consideration of the material on the expression level.

It follows from this, that phonetics a basis brunch or fundamental brunch of linguistics, that is why phonetics claims to be of equal importance with grammar and lexicology. Phonetics has two main divisions: phonology, the Study of sound patterns of languages, of how a spoken language functions as a "code", and the study of substance, that carries the code. It shows that there is a close relationship between the language and thought. In modern linguistics this relationship is explained the terms of distinctions: substance and form. By the term "substance" we mean the material - carries of all the elements of a language and the term form" we mean linguistic concepts. Human speech is called the "phonic substance" in which linguistic forms are manifested. The speech may be either oral or written. The term "phonetics" comes - from the Greek word "pho:n" - meaning sound, voice and "-tica" - a science. So, phonetics is a special science which studies the phonetic substance and expressions area of the language. The linguistic form and content are described by other brunches of linguistics, namely grammar (morphology and syntax) lexicology (vocabulary, the formation and the meaning of the words) and stylistics (expressive - emotional meaning). Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series of events. The formation of the concept takes place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker;

This stage may be called psychological. The message formed within the brain 1s transmitted along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore we may say that the human brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects in producing a particular pattern of speech sounds. This second stage may be called physiology cat. The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves. Consequently the third stage may be called physical or acoustic. Further, any communication requires a listener, as well as a speaker. So, the last stages are the reception of the sound waves by the listener's ,hearing physiological apparatus, the transmission of the spoken message through the nervous system to the brain and the 1 i n g u i s t i c interpretation of the information conveyed.¹

In accordance with their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped as follows: - The repertory or power mechanism furnishes the flow or the air which is the first requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formed by the lungs, the wind pipe and the bronchi. The energy which is regulated by the power mechanism. Regulating the force of the air - wave the lungs produce variations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic stress are directly related to the behavior of the muscles which activate this mechanism.

From the lungs through the wind - pipe the air - stream passes to the upper stages of the vocal tract. First of all it passes to the larynx containing the vocal cords.

The function of the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in motion by the air - stream sent by the lungs. At least two actions of the vocal cords as a vibrator should be mentioned.

The opening between the vocal cords is known as the glottis.

The most important speech function of the vocal cords is their role in the production of voice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate when subjected to the pressure of the air - passing from the lungs. This vibration is caused by compressed air forcing an opening of the glottis and the following reduced air - pressure permitting the vocal cords to come together.

The height of the speaking voice depends on the frequency of the vibrations.

The more frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. From the larynx the stream passes to the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes of these Cavities modify the note produced in the larynx thus giving rise to particular speech sounds. ..

The following four main types of phonetics may be distinguished:

1. Special phonetics is concerned with the study of phonetics system of a concrete language. When the phonetic system is studied in its static form, at a particular period (synchronically, we speak about descriptive phonetics). When the system is studied in its historical development (diachronically) we speak about historical, or evolutionary phonetics.

Historical phonetics uses the philological method of investigation. It studies written documents and compares the spelling and pronunciation of one and the same word in different periods of the history of the language.¹

2. General Phonetics which studies the human sound producing possibilities, the functioning of his speech mechanism and the ways they are used in all languages to pronounce speech sounds, syllables, stress and intonation. It is apart of General Linguistics.

3. Descriptive Phonetics studies the phonetic system of a certain language. For example: English Phonetics, Uzbek Phonetics etc.

4. Historical or Diachronical Phonetics which studies the changes a sound undergoes in the development of a language and languages.

5. Comparative - Typological Phonetics. It studies the phonetic features of two or more languages of different system such as English, Russian, Uzbek etc. It is part of Comparative - Typological Linguistics.

We begin our study of language by examining the inventory, structure and functions of the speech sounds. This branch of linguistics is called phonetics.

Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology or grammar. These linguistic sciences study language from three different points of view. Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of language, with the origin and development of words, with their meaning and word building. Grammar defines the rules governing the modification of words and the combination of words into sentences. Phonetics studies the outer form of language; its sound matter. The phonetician investigates the phonemes and their allophones, the syllabic structure the distribution of stress, and intonation. He is interested in the sounds that are produced by the human speech-organs insofar as these sounds have a role in language. Let us refer to this limited range of sounds as the phonic medium and to individual sounds within that range as speech-sounds. We may now define phonetics as the study of the phonic medium. Phonetics is the study of the way humans make, transmit, and receive speech sounds. Phonetics occupies itself with the study of the ways in which the sounds are organized into a system of units and the variation of the units in all types and styles of spoken language.

Phonetics is a basic branch of linguistics. Neither linguistic theory nor linguistic practice can do without phonetics. No kind of linguistic study can be made without constant consideration of the material on the expression level.

2) The subject-matter of phonetics

Phonetics deals with speech sounds. In Greek phōnētikós means: pertaining to voice and sound.

The significance of phonetics is evident, since speech is the most important means of human intercourse.

In the process of historical development the need for communication created and perfected speech organs, gradually men learned to pronounce and modulate speech sounds into combinations of words and sentences.

Sounds of speech are segments interconnected with minimal distinctive units — phonemes. Supersegmental units of speech — tone, stress and intonation are longer units of speech: syllables, words and intonation groups.

Ancient objects, drawings, and written documents show that voice and speech always fascinated men. Written documents and evidences from ancient civilizations point to an awareness of speech, its origin and abnormalities a long time ago.

In India more than 2,000 years ago there flourished a science of phonetics more advanced than any that has since been known until very recent times. The results, embodied in a series of Sanskrit texts, were first introduced to the West only some 80 years ago.

Here are some data connected with the history of phonetic development:

1829 — laryngoscope was invented,

1852 — first observations of the vocal cords were made,

1877 — gramophone was invented,

1886 — International Phonetic Association (IPA) was founded. IPA started publications of a special phonetic magazine "Le Mattre Phonetique". It stated phonetic symbols for sounds of many existing languages.

3) The relationship between phonetics and other sciences

Phonetics also studies the relation between written and spoken language and is connected with other linguistic disciplines such as grammar, lexicology, stylistics and others.

Phonetics is connected with grammar through the system of rules of reading, which make it possible to pronounce correctly the past tense forms of regular verbs, the singular and plural forms of nouns, and etc. Please consider the examples:

1) the differences in pronunciation of morpheme -ed after voiced and voiceless consonants in past forms of verbs:

[d] after voiced consonant [t] after voiceless consonants

beg – begged, clog – clogged stop – stopped; knock – knocked

 

2) the differences in pronunciation of root consonants observed in singular and plural forms of nouns:

leaf – leaves, house – houses, bath – baths

3) the vowel interchanges helping to distinguish the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tense forms of irregular verbs:

nouns verbs

basis – bases [si:z] 

crisis – crises [si:z] write – wrote - written

thesis – theses [si:z] ride – rode – ridden.

 

Phonetics is also connected with lexicology, since the presence of stress in the right place helps to distinguish nouns/adjectives from verbs. Homographs may also be differentiated only by pronunciation, because they are identical in spelling. Please consider the examples:

nouns – verbs adjectives – verbs homographs

an 'accent – to ac'cent 'separate – to sepa'rate row [rau] – row [rəu]

a 'desert – to de'sert 'predicate – to predi'cate lead [li:d] – lead [led]

an 'object – to ob'ject graduate – to graduate wind [wInd] – wind [waInd].

 

Stylistics is another linguistic discipline phonetics is connected with through intonation, speech-melody, rhythm and word stress. Regular repetition of stressed and unstressed words gives a rhythmic coloring to the English sentence. Logically accented words in a sentence help us to give special prominence to a sentence, and speed of delivery helps to differentiate formal and informal styles which express different emotions and attitudes of the speaker. Also intonation which possesses definite phonetic features helps to distinguish various types of utterances, e.g. (see Leontyeva, 1980 : 7-9):

He 'went to his _\office – a statement of fact.

He 'went to his _/office – a question.

↓He went to his _\/office – an implication (surprise, correction).

Speaking-hearing as a phenomenon (and human speech in general) is a result of a complicated series of events many of which are still not known and probably will never be. First, the cognitive information (a concept, an idea, a cognit and etc) is coded into the linguistic information (it can be said also that the linguistic code comprises an integral part of cognitive information), i.e. concepts, ideas and etc are coded into linguistic signs (patterns of speech sounds/phonemes, for instance) – the stage, in the broad term, is called psychological. Second, the coding activity initiates particular signals that come from the brain of the speaker to his/her articulating organs which move to produce particular speech sounds – being physiological in its nature the stage is called articulatory. Third, the speech organs disturb and modulate the air stream and produce sound waves – and the stage is called physical or acoustic (as acoustics is a part of physics). From thereon the whole process goes backwards – forth – the sound waves reach the ear of the hearer where they initiate signals to be transmitted to the brain of the hearer – being also physiological in its nature the stage is called auditory. Fifth, the transmitted signals initiate the decoding of the linguistic information (particular linguistic signs) into the original concepts, ideas and etc – the stage, in the broad term, is also psychological. Few moments need to be mentioned here: the psychological stages are the least studied and usually provide support for various and far too often opposite views; the five-stage approach is only a model and as every model may be quite different from reality; our knowledge of the processes going at every stage may differ sharply from reality and sometimes suggests dubious interpretations; the so-called “coding” and “decoding” terms are inherited from the times when language and intellect were regarded as different – actually opposite – objects (whereas the former is obviously the part of the latter); modern neuroscience and cognitive science regard the cognitive information, i.e. intellect/mind, and therefore the linguistic information, i.e. language/linguistic code, to be the function of connections activated between assemblies and networks of neurons in the human brain (see, for instance, Fuster, 2003) – yet no definite answer as to how the language and mind correlate with the neurons and brain seem to be even discerned at the scientific horizon; all the five stages can be regarded as representing different transformations of semiotic signs and thus can be viewed in terms of semiosis. Please review Picture 1 for the above mentioned stages:

 

Pic. 1. Speaking-Hearing Process.

 

1. Psychological (Coding) Stage

↓

2. Physiological (Articulatory) Stage

↓

3. Physical (Acoustic) Stage

↓

4. Physiological (Auditory) Stage

↓

5. Psychological (Decoding) Stage

 

The common approach (which is in correspondence with Pic. 1) is that phonetics has three branches: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.

Articulatory phonetics is the branch of phonetics “which is concerned with the study, description and classification of speech sounds as regards their production by the human speech apparatus” (Vassilyev, 1970 : 10). It is the most productive, developed and the oldest branch of phonetics. “From the articulatory point of view every speech sound is a complex of definite, finely coordinated and differentiated movements and positions of the speech organs” (op. cit.).

Acoustic phonetics is the branch of phonetics that studies the physics of the air vibrating between the mouth of the speaker and the ear of the hearer and producing sound waves of different character and acoustic effect, i.e. different speech sounds. “From acoustic point of view, a speech sound, like any other sound in nature, is a physical phenomenon, a kind of moving matter and energy” (Vassilyiev, 1970 : 12).

Auditory phonetics is the branch of phonetics which main concern is the investigation of the hearing process. At present time it mainly deals with the brain activity rather than with the physiological process of signal delivery and transfer through the nervous system of the hearer. Its interest lies more in the sphere of experimental psychology not linguistics. Till lately some linguists have not distinguished auditory phonetics as a separate branch of phonetics at all. But, still an outstanding Polish-Russian linguist, Baudouin de Courtenay (full name – Jan Niecisław Ignacy Baudouin de Courtenay, in St. Petersburg known as Ivan Aleksandrovich Boduen de Kurtene, 1845-1929) has invented the term anthropophonics, which united the articulatory and the auditory aspects of speech sounds. In the Soviet (Russian) linguistics the term has changed to physiological phonetics due to close connection between the articulatory and the auditory aspects of speech sounds. When our speech organs work, we at the same time hear what we speak, thus receiving feedback from our hearing system. Step by step, through accumulation of instrumental data, auditory phonetics finds its place in the sphere of phonetic science.

It is necessary to comment that Baudouin de Courtenay was the first one who introduced the term phonology, as the science of purely linguistic (functional) aspect of speech sounds, opposed to anthropophonics (the proper phonetics in modern terms).

Besides branches phonetics is divided into several sections (segments) also.

1) General phonetics – is a section studying all the sound-producing possibilities of human speech apparatus (organs) in various languages of the world. It studies the laws that govern the changes which speech sounds undergo in the flow of speech and finds out the types of such changes in various languages;

2) Historical phonetics – is a section that traces and establishes the successive changes in the phonetic system of a given language or a language family at different stages of its historical development. It helps to understand how this modern phonetic system came to be and what changes may take place in the future;

3) Comparative phonetics – studies the correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages, especially kindred ones. It finds out the correspondences between the speech sounds of kindred languages. For example, it is the comparative phonetics that tells us that to every initial prevocalic [z] of Modern German there corresponds the consonant [s] in Modern English: senden – send, silber – silver, Saltz – salt, singen – sing, Seite – side;

4) Theoretical phonetics – deals with theoretical problems of a particular language. It gives students the latest theories and views on many phonetic problems. It describes some moot points in a particular language;

5) Experimental phonetics – is a section that studies various phonetic phenomena in the laboratory conditions by means of all sorts of devices. It has gained far-reaching results in the last two decades.

As a branch of linguistics phonetics occupies a peculiar position. Though it is an independent science and develops according to its own laws, it is connected with a number of other linguistic and non-linguistic sciences.

The linguistic sciences study the language from different viewpoints. Lexicology treats of the vocabulary of a language, of its origin, meaning and word-building. Grammar studies the structure of a language and the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Stylistics means the study of style. The history of the language traces its historical development. Phonetics is connected with them because lexical, grammatical and other phenomena are expressed phonetically. They cannot exist outside phonetics.

Phonetics is connected with grammar as it helps to pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past indefinite and the past participle forms of verbs and other endings, as in: pens, books, classes, asks – asked, lives – lived, Nick’s, teacher’s, etc.

It is connected with grammar also through sound interchange, as in: wife – wives, path – paths, house – houses, man – men, mouse – mice, tooth – teeth, etc.