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Лексикология как наука. Предмет лексикологии и ее связь с другими разделами языкознания
Слово как основная единица языка. Отношения между словом и понятием
Проблема определения слова и его основные характеристики
Элементы семантической структуры слова. Полисемия в английском языке
Полисемия и омонимия. Проблема разграничения полисемии и омонимии
Антонимические отношения между словарными единицами. Некоторые общие и различительные черты синонимов и антонимов
Типы значения. Значение в синтагматике и парадигматике
Значение в сложных словах
Borrowed words (or loan words) - are words the origin of which can be traced to some other language outside English irrespective of the period of adoption. Note:
One more point. If we compare they, take, wine, table, sky and such words as chateau, raja, garage, blitzkrieg we shall observe a great difference. In the first place you don't feel that they are borrowed, in the second place they seem foreign to English. Both groups are borrowed words. The first were borrowed long ago and have completely assimilated in English. The words of the second group retain the foreign features and are called foreign words or barbarisms.
We must not confuse the immediate source of borrowing and the origin of this or that word.
The immediate source of borrowing is usually known and reflects actual contacts (economic or cultural) between people. This extra-linguistic factor helps to master the history of this or that nation. For example, the word table appeared in English through French - which is the immediate source of borrowing, but its origin is Latin - tabula; ink was borrowed from French, but may be traced to Latin, then Greek (kaio), and perhaps some other languages; school - the immediate source of borrowing - Latin, the origin - Greek, Russian школа - also from Greek. In dictionaries these notions are sometimes confused, though as a rule a whole chain of words is represented.
The way this or that word was borrowed:
Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of history (trough trade with Roman merchants, e.g. wine, cheese, butter, pepper). Written borrowings preserve their spelling (communique - French), sometimes pronunciation. They are often rather long and literary.
Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.
In some cases the pronunciation of the word (strange sounds, sound combinations, position of stress, etc.), its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word. This is the case with waltz (G.),. psychology (Gr.), soufflé (Fr.), etc. The initial position of the sounds [v], [dз], [з] or of the letters x, j, z is a sure sign that the word has been borrowed, e.g. volcano (It.), vase (Fr.), vaccine (L.), jungle (Hindi), gesture (L.), giant (OFr.), zeal (L.), zero (Fr.), zinc (G.), etc.
The morphological structure of the word and its grammatical forms may also bear witness to the word being adopted from another language. Thus the suffixes in the words neurosis (Gr.) and violoncello (It.) betray the foreign origin of the words. The same is true of the irregular plural forms papyra (from papyrus, Gr.), pastorali (from pastorale, It.), beaux (from beau, Fr.), bacteria, (from bacterium, L.) and the like.
Last but not least is the lexical meaning of the word. Thus the concept denoted by the words ricksha(w), pagoda (Chin.) make us suppose that we deal with borrowings.
These criteria are not always helpful. Some early borrowings have become so thoroughly assimilated that they are unrecognisable without a historical analysis, e.g. chalk, mile (L.), ill, ugly (Scand.), enemy, car (Fr.), etc. It must also be taken into consideration that the closer the relation between the languages, the more difficult it is to distinguish borrowings.
Sometimes the form of the word and its meaning in Modern English enable us to tell the immediate source of borrowing. Thus if the digraph ch is sounded as [∫], the word is a late French borrowing (as in echelon, chauffeur, chef); if it stands for [k], it came through Greek (archaic, architect, chronology); if it is pronounced as [t∫], it is either an early-borrowing (chase, OFr.; cherry, L., OFr.; chime, L.), or a word of Anglo-Saxon origin (choose, child, chin).
In its 15 century long history recorded in written manuscripts the English language happened to come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). The great influx of borrowings from these sources can be accounted for by a number of historical causes. Due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were on the same level of social and cul¬tural development and who merged rather easily with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of the 11th century. French (to be more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system—devel¬oped feudalism, it was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century.
In the study of the borrowed element in English the main emphasis is as a rule placed on the Middle English period. Borrowings of later periods became the object of investigation only in recent years. These investigations have shown that the flow of borrowings has been steady and uninterrupted. The greatest number has come from French. They refer to various fields of social-political, scientific and cultural life. A large portion of borrowings (41%) is scientific and technical terms.
The number and character of borrowed words tell us of the relations between the peoples, the level of their culture, etc. It is for this reason that borrowings have often been called the milestones of history. Thus if we go through the lists of borrowings in English and arrange them in groups according to their meaning, we shall be able to obtain much valu¬able information with regard to England's contacts with many nations. Some borrowings, however, cannot be explained by the direct influence of certain historical conditions, they do not come along with any new objects or ideas. Such were for instance the words air, place, brave, gay borrowed from French.
It must be pointed out that while the general historical causes of borrowing from different languages have been studied with a considerable degree of thoroughness the purely linguistic reasons for borrowing are still open to investigation.
The number and character of borrowings do not only depend on the historical conditions, on the nature and length of the contacts, but also on the degree of the genetic and structural proximity of languages con¬cerned. The closer the languages, the deeper and more versatile is the influence. This largely accounts for the well-marked contrast between the French and the Scandinavian influence on the English language. Thus under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, which were closely related to Old English, some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages (the pronouns they, their, them, for instance); a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native words (they were of the same root and the connection between them was easily seen), e.g. drop (AS.)— drip (Scand.), true (AS)— tryst (Scand.); the Scandinavian influence even accelerated to a certain degree the development of the grammatical structure of English.
Borrowings enter the language in two ways:
Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times written borrowing gained importance. Words borrowed orally (e.g. L. inch, mill, street) are usually short and they undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings (e.g. Fr. communique, belles-lettres, naiveté) preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form, their assimilation is a long and laborious process.
Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.
In some cases the pronunciation of the word (strange sounds, sound combinations, position of stress, etc.), its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word. This is the case with waltz (G.), psychology (Gr.), soufflé (Fr.), etc. The initial position of the sounds [v], [dʒ], [ʒ] or of the letters x, j, z is a sure sign that the word has been borrowed, e.g. volcano (It.), vase (Fr.), vaccine (L.), jungle (Hindi), gesture (L.), giant (OFr.), zeal (L.), zero (Fr.), zinc (G.), etc.
The morphological structure of the word and its grammatical forms may also bear witness to the word being adopted from another language. Thus the suffixes in the words neurosis (Gr.) and violoncello (It.) betray the foreign origin of the words. The same is true of the irregular plural forms papyra (from papyrus, Gr.), pastorali (from pastorale, It.), beaux (from beau, Fr.), bacteria, (from bacterium, L.) and the like.
Last but not least is the lexical meaning of the word. Thus the concept denoted by the words ricksha(w), pagoda (Chin.) make us suppose that we deal with borrowings.
These criteria are not always helpful. Some early borrowings have become so thoroughly assimilated that they are unrecognizable without a historical analysis, e.g. chalk, mile (L.), ill, ugly (Scand.), enemy, car (Fr.), etc. It must also be taken into consideration that the closer the relation between the languages, the more difficult it is to distinguish borrowings.
Sometimes the form of the word and its meaning in Modern English enable us to tell the immediate source of borrowing. Thus if the digraph ch is sounded as [ʃ], the word is a late French borrowing (as in echelon, chauffeur, chef); if it stands for [k], it came through Greek (archaic, architect, chronology); if it is pronounced as [ʧ], it is either an early borrowing (chase, OFr.; cherry, L., OFr.; chime, L.), or a word of Anglo-Saxon origin (choose, child, chin).
Borrowed words (or loan words) - are words the origin of which can be traced to some other language outside English irrespective of the period of adoption. Note:
One more point. If we compare they, take, wine, table, sky and such words as chateau, raja, garage, blitzkrieg we shall observe a great difference. In the first place you don't feel that they are borrowed, in the second place they seem foreign to English. Both groups are borrowed words. The first were borrowed long ago and have completely assimilated in English. The words of the second group retain the foreign features and are called foreign words or barbarisms.
We must not confuse the immediate source of borrowing and the origin of this or that word.
The immediate source of borrowing is usually known and reflects actual contacts (economic or cultural) between people. This extra-linguistic factor helps to master the history of this or that nation. For example, the word table appeared in English through French - which is the immediate source of borrowing, but its origin is Latin - tabula; ink was borrowed from French, but may be traced to Latin, then Greek (kaio), and perhaps some other languages; school - the immediate source of borrowing - Latin, the origin - Greek, Russian школа - also from Greek. In dictionaries these notions are sometimes confused, though as a rule a whole chain of words is represented.
The way this or that word was borrowed:
Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of history (trough trade with Roman merchants, e.g. wine, cheese, butter, pepper). Written borrowings preserve their spelling (communique - French), sometimes pronunciation. They are often rather long and literary.
Some French words entered the English language even before the Norman invasion in 1066: mount, castle, tower, proud - pride, after the invasion – manor - поместье, villain – крепостной, батрак, негодяй (14 век), peasant (14 век).
Terms denoting
Late borrowings retain French spelling and pronunciation (stress), only partially assimilated: 16 century - bourgeois, machine, police, campaign, group, soup, routine; 19 century - atelier, millionaire, restaurant. These borrowings were so numerous that some English scholars began to state that English ceased to be a Germanic language.
Role: late French and Latin borrowings account for the appearance of long words of many syllables (mostly literary words), they added to the wealth of synonyms, they brought with them new affixes (the greatest part of them is Romanic), gave rise to etymological doublets, a wealth of international words.
Etymology of words may be reflected in their sound and graphic firm:
Latin borrowings - The old-Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxes and Gutes got to know Romans on the Continent before these tribes invaded the British Isles.
The earliest borrowings from Latin are: wine - vinum (the Germanic tribes could not make wine and bought it from the Romans); pound - pondo, inch - uncia. These tribes bred cattle, they drank ale, milk, but could not make cheese or butter; they learnt the art of cheese- and butter-making from Romans, thus, cheese and butter are borrowings from Latin. These tribes knew only apples, names of all other fruit are borrowed, so are the names of vegetables, even the word plant - Latin planta.
In Britain the Romans built good roads which they called strata via - street. The word wall also belongs here. With introduction of Christianity in the 7 c. many religious terms appeared in English: bishop, monk, priest, candle; monasterium - minster (Westminster — западный монастырь), school was borrowed at the same time.
he second influx of Latin borrowings was observed during the Renaissance (15-16 cc.). Numerous translations of ancient authors called forth a number of bookish words (verbs with the suffix -ate - create, accommodate, illustrate, participate; verbs, ending in -ct - act, elect, direct, protect; -ute - constitute, distribute; adjectives in -ent/-ant - decent, evident, important, private.
Borrowed words (or loan words) - are words the origin of which can be traced to some other language outside English irrespective of the period of adoption.
The way this or that word was borrowed:
Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of history (trough trade with Roman merchants, e.g. wine, cheese, butter, pepper).
Written borrowings preserve their spelling (communique - French), sometimes pronunciation. They are often rather long and literary.
Borrowed words can be classified according to the degree of assimilation:
Reasons for the degree of assimilation. The degree of assimilation depends upon:
All the changes that borrowed elements undergo may be divided into two large groups.
The suffixes -ar, -or, -ator in early Latin borrowings were replaced by the highly productive Old English suffix -ere, as in L. Caesar —> OE. Casere, L. sutor —> OE. sūtere. By analogy with the great majority of nouns that form their plural in -s, borrowings, even very recent ones, have assumed this inflection instead of their original plural endings. The forms Soviets, bolsheviks, kolkhozes, sputniks illustrate the process.
It is very important to discriminate between the two processes — the adaptation of borrowed material to the norms of the language and the development of these words according to the laws of the language.
This differentiation is not always easily discernible. In most cases we must resort to historical analysis before we can draw any definite conclusions. There is nothing in the form of the words procession and,progression to show that the former was already used in England in the 11th century, the latter not till the 15th century. The history of these words reveals that the word procession has undergone a number of changes alongside with other English words (change in declension, accentuation, structure, sounds), whereas the word progression underwent some changes by analogy with the word procession and other similar words already at the time of its appearance in the language.
Phonetic assimilation comprising changes in sound-form and stress is perhaps the most conspicuous. Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its scheme of sounds. For instance, the long [e] and [ε] in recent French borrowings, alien to English speech, are rendered with the help of [ei] (as in the words communiqué, chaussée, café). Familiar sounds or sound combinations the position of which was strange to the English language, were replaced by other sounds or sound combinations to make the words conform to the norms of the language, e.g. German spitz [∫pits] was turned into English [spits]. Substitution of native sounds for foreign ones usually takes place in the very act of borrowing. But some words retain their foreign pronunciation for a long time before the unfamiliar sounds are replaced by similar native sounds. Even when a borrowed word seems at first sight to be identical in form with its immediate etymon as OE. skill <— Scand. skil; OE. scinn <— Scand. skinn; OE. ran <— Scand. ran the phonetic structure of the word undergoes some changes, since every language as well as every period in the history of a language is characterised by its own peculiarities in the articulation of sounds. In words that were added to English from foreign sources, especially from French or Latin, the accent was gradually transferred to the first syllable. Thus words like honour, reason were accented on the same principle as the native father, mother.