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Units of language on different levels are studied by traditional branches of linguistics such as phonetics that deals with speech sounds and intonation; lexicology that treats words, their meaning and vocabulary structure, grammar that analyses forms of words and their function in a sentence which is studied by syntax. These areas of linguistic study are rather clearly defined and have a long-term tradition of regarding language phenomena from a level-oriented point of view.
(Skrebnev Y.M. Fundamentals of English stylistics. – M., 1994. – p. 98-156)
Тема 6. (1) WORD AND ITS SEMANTIC STRUCTURE. CONNOTATIONAL MEANINGS OF A WORD. THE ROLE OF THE CONTEXT IN THE ACTUALIZATION OF MEANING. (2) EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES OF THE LEXICAL LEVEL. INTERACTION OF DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUAL LOGICAL MEANINGS.
1.Word and its semantic structure. Connotational meanings of a word. The role of the context in the actualization of meanings.
Word is a linguistic unit of major significance. The most essential feature of a word is that it expresses the concept of a thing, process, phenomenon, naming (denoting) them. Concept is a logical category, its linguistic counterpart is meaning. Meaning is the unity of generalization, communication and thinking. A structure of extreme complexity, the meaning of a word is liable to historical changes, which are responsible for the formation of an expanded semantic structure of a word. This structure consists of various types of lexical meanings:
– denotational, the major one, which informs of the subject of communication,
– connotational, additional, which informs about the participants and conditions of communication, i.e. is connected with extra-linguistic circumstances.
The list and specification of connotational meanings varies with different linguistic schools and individual scholars and includes such meanings as:
2.Expressive means and stylistic devices of the lexical level. Interaction of dictionary and contextual logical meanings: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony.
Almost all words may be used in speech not in the meaning fixed in dictionaries, but in their transferred meaning. “Transferred meaning is the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual” (I.R. Galperin). The relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings may be maintained:
Each type of transference results in stylistic device called a TROPE. The most frequently used, well known and elaborated among them is a metaphor.
a) Metaphor. Metaphor is a moving of the characteristics of one subject (phenomenon) on another on the grounds of the sign, general for both compared members. It is the relation between the dictionary and contextual denotative meanings based on similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts. The resemblance is in the writer’s mind, not in the nature of the concepts.
Metaphor, like all stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness:
genuine metaphors when resemblance is vivid and new,
trite (or dead) metaphors which are expressions, originally created in poetry, in the Bible, in imaginative prose that have gained wide currency and become known to everybody.
By structure metaphors can be:
simple, i.e. those in which only one statement is metaphorical as a whole or contains a metaphorical element (word, phrase);
sustained, when one metaphorical statement, creating an image, is followed by another, containing a continuation, or logical development of the previous metaphor.
The metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. This is its main function.
Genuine metaphors are to be found in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are generally used as expressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language. There are also confused or mixed metaphors.
A sustained metaphor (chain of metaphors) may consist of trite metaphors expressing a certain logical development of ideas, and yet the objects mentioned in each of them belongs to different semantic spheres, due to which the links of the chain seem disconnected with one another. The general impression is clumsy and comical.
Personification is a kind of metaphor in which a thing or an idea is presented as a human being. The stylistic purposes of personification are various. In classical poetry of the seventeenth century it was a tribute to mythological tradition and to the laws of mediaeval rhetoric.
Personification is often effected by direct address. Another formal device of personification is capitalization of the word which expresses a personal notion.
b) Metonymy is based on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent:
- A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion (the thing becomes a symbol of the notion),
- The container instead of the thing contained,
- The relation of proximity,
- The material instead of the thing made of it,
- Symbol instead of object symbolized,
- The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself.
Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy:
the name of the part is used instead of the whole,
the singular is used instead of the plural.
c) Irony is a stylistic device based on the simaltaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual. But the two meanings stand in opposition to each other: the notion named and the notion meant.
There are at least two kinds of irony:
Utterances the ironical sense of which is evident to any native speaker, they can have only an ironical message. No one would ever take them at their face value. The peculiar word order and stereotyped words make up set phrases implying just the opposite of what they seem to be,
Utterances which can be understood either literally, or ironically, especially in written texts. Thus we cannot say if the speaker is serious or ironical.
In oral speech, irony is often stressed by emphatic intonation. In writing, the most typical signs are inverted commas or italics. But more often it is the general situation which makes the reader guess the real viewpoint of the writer.
(Skrebnev Y.M. Fundamentals of English stylistics. – M., 1994. – p. 98-156)
Тема 7. (1)INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS: PLAY ON WORDS (PUN) AND ZEUGMA.(2) INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS: EPITHET, OXYMORON. (3)INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS: ANTONOMASIA. (4)INTENSIFICATION OF A CERTAIN FEATURE OF A PHENOMENON: HYPERBOLE, UNDERSTATEMENT, SIMILE, PERIPHRASIS, EUPHEMISM.
1.Interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings: play on words (pun) and zeugma.
The role of the context is similar to that of zeugma, while the structure is changed, for the central word is repeated. So the pun is more independent than zeugma.
2.Interaction of logical and emotive meanings: epithet, oxymoron.
The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence. It is used to characterize an object and point out some properties of this object in order to give an individual perception and evaluation of these properties.
a) Semantically, epithets may be divided into associated with the noun following and unassociated with it.
b) From the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided into simple, compound and phrase epithets.
c) Epithets can be fixed, or trite, and original.
Epithet is of special significance in different kinds of poetry, each epoch and genre having its own stock of traditional epithets.
Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meaning of the two clash, being opposite in sense.
The most widely known structure of oxymoron is attributive. Oxymorons rarely become trite as their components are linked forcibly and oppose repeated use.
3.Interaction of logical and nominal meanings: antonomasia.
The interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word is called antonomasia. It is the use of a common noun as a proper name or vice versa. The main function of this device is to characterize a person simalteneously with naming him. Logical meaning serves to denote concepts, to classify individual objects into groups, whereas nominal meaning applies to one single individual object with the aim of singling it out of the group of similar objects, of individualizing one particular object.
One more type of antonomasia is presented by the so-called “speaking names” – names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived.
Antonomasia is ctreated mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (as in Dr. Fresh Air) or phrases (as in Mr. What’s-his name).
4.Intensification of a certain feature of a phenomenon: hyperbole, understatement, simile, periphrasis, euphemism.
Hyperbole is an evident exaggeration. Its aim is to intensify one of the features of the object to such a degree that will show its utter absurdity. Hyperbole is one of the most common expressive means of our everyday speech. Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader’s ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance.
Understatement is a stylistic device opposite to hyperbole, when the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features of the object are intentionally underrated. The mechanism of its creation and functioning is identical with that of hyperbole, and it does not show the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents it through the emotionally coloured perception of the speaker.
Simile is a stylistic device which deals with intensification of some one feature of the concept in question. Simile is based on comparison, but simile and comparison are not to be confused:
1) comparison means weighing two objects belonging to one class of things, but in simile objects belong to heterogeneous classes,
2) comparison takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is compared, but simile excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them. Simile can be called an imaginative comparison,
Similes have formal words in their structure – connective words: like, such, as, as if, the verb to seem. There are genuine and trite similes. Many of the trite similes have become clichés.
Periphrasis is a device which, according to Webster’s dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression.
Periphrasis is the re-naming of an object by a phrase that brings out some particular feature of the object. As a rule it’s the use of a longer phrasing with descriptive epithets, abstract general terms. Periphrasis is aimed at representing the author’s idea in a round-about way.
There are traditional, language or dictionary periphrases, which are periphrastic synonyms, not stylistic devices. Periphrasis as a stylistic device is a new, genuine nomination of an object. It is a process which realizes the power of language to coin new names for objects by disclosing some quality of the object, but at the same time preserving in the mind the ordinary name of the concept.
Stylistic periphrasis can be divided into logical and figurative. Logical periphrasis is based on one of the inherent properties or perhaps a passing feature of the object described, figurative periphrasis is based either on metaphor or on metonymy. Periphrasis serves to achieve greater expressiveness and is often used for the sake of humour, satire, parody.
Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. It is a way of describing an offensive, unpleasant thing by an inoffensive expression. Euphemisms can be divided into several groups according to their sphere of application: religious, moral, medical and parliamentary.
(Skrebnev Y.M. Fundamentals of English stylistics. – M., 1994. – p. 98-156)
Тема 8. STYLISTIC USE OF PHRASEOLOGY: THE CLICHE, PROVERBS AND SAYINGS, ALLUSIONS, EPIGRAMS, QUOTATIONS. TRANSLATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS.
In recent decades, phraseology, or the study of fixed expressions and idioms, has received considerable attention from linguistic disciplines such as psycholinguistics, lexicography, computational linguistics and stylistics.
While some questions concerning phraseology are still the subject of lively debate, there are others on which agreement is almost unanimous, for instance, that institutionalization and lexicogrammatical fixedness are essential qualities of fixed expressions and idioms.
These two characteristics, institutionalization and fixedness, make fixed expressions and idioms an interesting topic for stylistics, though speakers can make alterations or modifications which then may result in different stylistic effects.
a) The cliche is generally defined as an expression that has become hackneyed and trite. Men-of-letters use the stock of expressive phrases contained in the language naturally and easily, and well-known phrases never produce the impression of being clichés.
Cliches are widely used in newspaper and publicist styles.
b) Proverbs and sayings. Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community. They serve as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. They are often emotive, evaluative and image-making. They are usually characterized by brevity.
For the stylistic purposes proverbs and sayings are used not in their fixed form, but with modifications (decomposition, violation). The most common means of modification are
substitution of components,
introduction of additional words.
The use of a saying or a proverb in a modified form will always draw the reader’s attention and create a foregrounding effect. This stylistic device is widely used in the belles-letters and in newspaper style (especially in headlines). The efficient use of proverbs, sayings, catch-phrases will always make both spoken and written language emotional, concrete, figurative, catching and lively.
c) Epigrams. An epigram is a stylistic device akin to the proverb. But epigrams are created by individuals whose names are known. Epigrams are short, witty, pointed statements. They always have a literary-bookish air about them that distinguish them from proverbs. They are usually brief and have a generalizing function.
d) Allusions. An allusion is an indirect reference (by word or phrase) to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. It’s a hint at something presumably known to the reader. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing or person alluded to, and the interplay between two meanings: the primary meaning of the word or phrase which is considered to be known served as a vessel into which new meaning is put.
e) Quotations. A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book or speech used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand. By repeating a passage in a new environment, we add to it an importance which it didn’t have in the original context. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas, dashes, italics or other graphical means.
They are usually used with a reference to the author of the quotation. The reference is made in the text or in a foot-note and assumes various forms: “as...has it; ...once said that...”.
Quotations are used as a stylistic device with the aim of expanding the meaning of the sentence quoted and setting two meanings one against the other, thus modifying the original meaning. In this quality they are used mostly in the belles-letters style. Quotations used in other styles allow no modifications of meaning, unless actual distortion of meaning is the aim of the quoter. Quotations are also used in epigrams.
While translating phraseological units you should find adequate Russian equivalents, but not give word for word translation.
Тема 9. EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES OF THE SYNTACTICAL LEVEL
By syntactical expressive means we understand the arrangement of phrases, sentences and paragraphs with the purpose of producing some stylistic effect.
The paragraph is distinct part of a writing, consisting of one or several sentences; a portion or section which relates to a particular point and is generally distinguished by a break in the lines.
The paragraph is a unit concerned with one topic only. The paragraph helps the reader to grasp thoughts more economically than he can when they are presented in one mass.
The length of the paragraph is determined by the subject of writing and the functional style: in newspaper style considerations of space and psychology govern the rules of structure and length; most paragraphs in newspapers consist of one or two sentences. In the buildings of paragraphs in scientific prose style it is logical principles that are important. Paragraph building in the style of official documents, business letters and publicist style is mainly governed by the particular conventional forms of documents (charters, pacts, business letters, legal documents, etc.).
Topic sentence and the development of the paragraph. The paragraph in some styles, such as scientific, publicist and some others has a topic sentence or statement. It embodies the main idea of the paragraph. It meets the need of the reader to know what the writer is going to talk about. The topic statement may occur at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the paragraph. In logical prose, especially in scientific prose, the topic sentence is as a rule placed at the beginning (sometimes at the end). In the belles-letters style the topic sentence may be placed in any part of the paragraph, or it may even be left out altogether, being merely implied.
What makes the paragraph a stylistic device? As a compositional device the paragraph is aimed either at promoting the process of understanding what is written, or including a certain reaction on the part of the reader.
2.Syntactical devices based on peculiar syntactical arrangement of utterances: stylistic inversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions, reversed parallelism (chiasmus).
Stylistic inversion. Unlike grammatical inversion stylistic inversion does not change the structural meaning of the sentence. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the utterance.
The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met in both English prose and poetry:
- The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence,
- The attribute is placed after the word it modifies,
- The predicative is placed before the subject,
- The predicative stands before the link verb and both are placed before the subject,
- The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence,
- Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject.
Detached constructions. Detachment is a stylistic device based on singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation) to make it more prominent.
The word-order here is not violated, but secondary members obtain their own stress and intonation because they are detached from the rest of the sentence by commas, dashes or even a full stop.
In the English language detached constructions are generally used in the belles-letters style and mainly with words that have some explanatory function, e.g.
A variant of detached construction is parenthesis. It is an explanatory or qualifying sentence, phrase or word, which is inserted in a longer passage without being grammatically connected with it, usually marked off by brackets, dashes, commas.
Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro-structures – the syntactical whole and the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical or similar syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence, closely following one another.