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Units of language on different levels are studied by traditional branches of linguistics as phonetics (that deals with speech sounds and intonation), lexicology (treats the words, their meaning and vocabulary structure), grammar (analysis forms of words), syntax (analysis the function of words in a sentence).
These areas of study are more or less clear-cut. Some scholars claim that stylistic is a comparatively new branch of linguistics, The term stylistics really came into existence not too long ago.
4. Style of Official Documents: a) special compositional design (coded graphical layout, clear-cut subdivision of texts into units of formation), b) conventional composition of treaties, agreements, protocols, c) use of stereotyped, official phraseology, d) accurate use of punctuation, e) generally objective, concrete, unemotional and impersonal style of narration
5. Scientific Style: a) highly formalized text with the prevalence of formulae, tables etc, b) in humanitarian texts: descriptive narration, supplied with argumentation and interpretation, c) logical and consistent narration, sequential presentation of material and facts, d) extensive use of citations, e) extensive use of EM and SD, f) extensive use of conventional set phrases at certain points to emphasize the logical character of the narration, g) use of digressions to debate or support a certain point, h) introduction, chapters, paragraph, conclusion, i) extensive use of double conjunctions like as…as, either…or, both…and, etc, j)compositionally arranged sentence patterns: postulatory (at the beginning), argumentative (in the central part), formulative (in the conclusion)
Paradigmatic syntax has to do with the sentence paradigm: completeness of sentence structure (1), communicative types of sentences (2), word order (3), and type of syntactical connection (4). Paradigmatic syntactical means of expression arranged according to these four types include:
(1): ellipsis, aposiopesis, one-member nominative sentences, redundancy: repetition of sentence parts, syntactic tautology (prolepsis), polysyndeton.
(2): inversion of sentence members
(3): quasi-affirmative sentences, quasi-interrogative sentences, quasi-negative sentences, quasi-imperative sentences
(4): detachment, parenthetic elements, asyndetic subordination and coordination.
Syntactical SD:
1. Syntactical SD with missing elements
2. Syntactical SD with redundant elements
3. Inversion
Syntactical stylistic devices with missing elements
Aposiopesis stopping abruptly and leaving a statement unfinished.
Aposiopesis “a stopping short for rhetorical effect” (I.R.Galperin). Used mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative imitating spontaneous oral speech because the speaker’s emotions prevent him from finishing the sentence (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. You just come home or I’ll ... ; e.g. Good intentions, but ...
Ellipsis. The omission of a word or a part of a sentence that follows logically. Typical of oral speech.
Ellipsis a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence. e.g. What! all my pretty chickens and their dam at one fell swoop? (W.Shakespeare); e.g. In manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low. In face, watchful behind a blind. (Dickens); e.g. His forehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all one side. (Dickens).
Apokoinu is the omission of coordinative or subordinative words. Typical of spontaneous or illiterate speech.
apo-koinu constructions (Greek "with a common element"). e.g. There was a door led into the kitchen. (Sh. Anderson); e.g. He was the man killed that deer. (R. Warren); e.g. There was no breeze came through the door. (E.Hemingway); e.g. I bring him news will raise his dropping spirits. (O. Jespersen)
Syntactical SD:
1. Syntactical SD with missing elements
2. Syntactical SD with redundant elements
3. Inversion
Syntactical SD with redundant elements
Asyndeton. Consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. In a list of items, asyndeton gives the effect of unpremeditated (преднамеренный) multiplicity, of an extemporaneous (импровизированный) rather than a labored account.
Asyndeton is a deliberate omission of conjunctions, cutting off connecting words. Helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active prose. (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk, like one standing before an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered. (Galsworthy)
Polysyndeton. Is the use of conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, and it thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton. The rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic, enumeration and building up. Polysyndeton is a repeated use of conjunctions. Is to strengthen the idea of equal logical/emotive importance of connected sentences(V.A. Kucharenko). e.g. By the time he had got all the bottles and dishes and knives and forks and glasses and plates and spoons and things piled up on big trays, he was getting very hot, and red in the face, and annoyed. (A.Tolkien)
Anadiplosis (or catch repetition). Repeats the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the text. It can be generated in series for the sake of beauty or to give a sense of logical progression (…a, a…). e.g.: Pleasure might cause her read, reading might make her know, …
Anaphora. Is the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or sentences, commonly in conjunctions with climax and with parallelism (a…, a…). e.g.: Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not knowing what they find at the top of the hill.
Epistrophe (also called antistrophe or epiphora). Forms the counterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences (…a, …a). e.g.: I wake up and I’m alone and I walk round Warley and I’m alone; and I talk with people and I’m alone and I look at his face when I’m home and it’s dead. (J.Braine)
Symploce. Combining anaphora and epiphora, so that one word or phrase is repeated at the beginning and another word or phrase is repeated at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences (a…b, a…b). Eg. To think clearly and rationally should be a major goal for man; but to think clearly and rationally is always the greatest difficulty faced by man.
Amplification. Involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail to it, in order to emphasize what might otherwise be passed over. e.g.: Pride – boundless pride – is the bone of civilisation.
Prolepsis. Is the use of co-referential pronoun after a noun or a proper name. Typical of spontaneous speech. e.g.: John, he doesn’t like loud music.
Hypophora. Consists of raising one or more questions and then proceeding to answer them, usually at some length. A common usage is it ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that paragraph to answer it.
Rhetorical question (or erotesis). Differs from hypophora in that it is not answered by the writer, because its answer is obvious or obviously desired, and usually just a ‘yes’ or ‘no’. It is used for effect, emphasis or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary statement from the facts at hand. e.g. For if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?
Repetition is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotion. It shows the state of speaker. As a SD repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination, phrase for two and more times. According to the place which repeated unit occupies in the sentence (utterance), repetition is classified:
anaphora: the beginning of two or more successive sentences (clauses) is repeated – a.., a..,a… The main stylistic function of anaphora is hot so much to emphasize the repeated unit as to create the background textile non-repeated unit, which, through its novelty, becomes foreground.
epiphora: the end of two or more successive sentence (clauses) is repeated- ..a,…a,…a. The main function of epiphora is to add stress to the final words of the sentences.
framing: the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thus forming the “frame” for the non- repeated part of the sentence (utterance)-a..a. The function of framing is to elucidate the notion mentioned in the beginning of the sentence.
catch repetition (anadiplosis or linking or reduplication) the end of one clause (sentence) is repeated in the beginning of the following one -…a,a… it makes the whole utterance more compact and complete. Framing is most effective in singling out paragraphs.
chain repetition presents several successive anadiplosis- ..a,a…b, b…c, c. The effect is that of the smoothly developing logical reasoning.
ordinary repetition has no definite place in the sentence and the repeated unit occurs in various positions- …a, …a…, a…/ ordinary repetition emphasizes both the logical and emotional meanings of the reiterated word.
successive repetition is a string of closely following each other reiterated units- ..a,a,a… this is the most emphatic type of repetition which signifies the peak of emotions of the speaker.
Synonym repetition. The repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance.: there are two terms frequently used to show the negative attitude of the critic to all kinds of synonym repetition: a) pleonasm – the use of more words in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaning; redundancy of expression; b)tautology-defined as the repetition of the same statement; the repetition of the same word or phrase or of the same idea or statement in the other words; usually as a fault of style
Parallel constructions may be viewed as a purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical "flesh". True enough, parallel constructions almost always include some type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence produces a very strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. The necessary condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence. Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and conjunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). Parallel constructions can be partial and complete. Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some arts of successive sentences or clauses. Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principal of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences. There are two main functions of parallel constructions: semantic (suggest equal semantic significance of the component parts) and structural (rhythmical design to these component parts).
Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of a chiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the first construction. Thus, if the first sentence (clause) has a direct word order - SPO, the second one will have it inverted - OPS. Like parallel constructions chiasmus contributes to the rhythmical quantity of the utterance, and the pause caused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be likened to a caesura in prosody.
Inversion which was briefly mentioned in the definition of chiasmus is very often used as an independent SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate (predicative) precedes the subject; or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair. Correspondingly, we differentiate between partial and a complete inversion. The stylistic device of inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion which is a norm in interrogative constructions. Stylistic inversion deals with the rearrangement of the normative word order. Questions may also be rearranged: "Your mother is at home?" asks one of the characters of J. Baldwin's novel. The inverted question presupposes the answer with more certainty than the normative one. It is the assuredness of the speaker of the positive answer that constitutes additional information which is brought into the question by the inverted word order. Interrogative constructions with the direct word order may be viewed as cases of two-step (double) inversion: direct w/o —» grammatical inversion —» direct w/o.
Syntagmatic semasiology deals with stylistic functions of relationship of names in text. It studies types of linear arrangement of meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is called “figures of co-occurrence” (or figures of replacement). There are 3 types of semantic interrelations: figures of identity, figures of inequality, figures of contrast.
Clarifying (specifying) synonyms (synonymous repetition used to characterize different aspects of the same referent). E.g: You undercut sinful, insidious hog.
Climax (gradation of emphatic growing in strength, in Greek means “ladder”).- consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences in the order of increasing importance, weight or emphasis. E.g: What differences if it rained, hailed blew, snowed, cycloned?
Anti-climax (back gradation – instead of a few elements growing in intensity without relief there unexpectedly appears a weak or contrastive element that makes the statement humorous or ridiculous). E.g.: the woman who could face the very devil himself or a mouse – goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning.
SD based on the opposition of meanings of phonological and/or graphical elements of the language are called phonetical and graphical stylistic devices.
Onomatopoeia - the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object or action, such as "hiss", "bowwow", "murmur", "bump", "grumble", "sizzle" and many more. Poetry abounds in some specific types of sound-instrumenting, the leading role belonging to alliteration - the repetition of consonants, usually-in the beginning of words, and assonance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. They both may produce the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing). To create additional information in a prose discourse sound-instrumenting is seldom used. In contemporary advertising, mass media and, above all, imaginative prose sound is fore grounded mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation. This intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called graphon. : mispronunciations in the speech of uneducated people (“peepul”, “jewinile”), amalgamated forms (“gimme” (give me), “gonna” (going to), mispronunciations which show the physical defects of the speakers: stumbling, lisping; graphical changes used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the stressed words, i.e. all changes of the type (italics, capitalization), spacing of the graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) and of lines (verse lines organized in “steps”). Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar sound combinations of words. Rhythm- the flow of speech presents an alternation of stressed and unstressed elements; the pattern of interchange of strong and weak segments is called rhythm.
Phraseological unit – is a system of words a meaning of which can’t be guessed from the meaning of its components (Koonin).
Each phr.unit is characterized by a certain degree of cohesion.
Phr.units are characterized by the following feature’s: 1. Stability; 2. Semantic integraty; 3. Ready-made structure which can’t be changed or substituted.
Professor Screbnev differentiate
1. Formal/bookish phr.units: Eg. The knight of the Quill = a writer; A heart of oak = brave, courageous; Achilles hill – ахилесова пята
2. Neutral phr.units are units which are devoid of any emotiveness: Eg. By hook or by crock – всеми правдами и неправдами; For good and for all – раз и навсегда
3. Familiar colloquial phr.units: Eg. Have bats in one’s belfry – быть не в своем уме; A pretty kettle of fish – веселенькая история; To rain cats and dogs – неприятности валятся; To be one’s cups – быть навеселе, подвыпившим; Small fry – мелкая сошка
4. Slangish phr.units: Eg. To drop off the hooks – сорваться с петель, умереть; To kick the bucket – дать дуба; To hop the twig – загнуться, дать дуба
Professor I.V. Arnold classifies phr.units into
1. Usual p.units that are fixed in the dictionaries; 2. Occasional p.units that is creation of different authors. They are contextual predetermined. They appeared as a result of some change in usual units. These changes are the following: a. Prolongation. Eg. To be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth (usual p.unit) – родится под счастливой звездой: Little George was born with a silver spoon in a mouth which was curly and large (prolongation). b. Substitution. Eg. All the world and his wife (usual p.unit) – всё светское общество: all the world and his mistress (substitution) were at the party. c. Insertion (вклинивание). Eg. To turn one’s nose at sb. (usual p.unit) – смотреть с высока: She turned her well-shaped (insertion) nose at him.
Professor Koonin differentiate phr.units:
1. Stylistically neutral are units which are devoid of any emotiveness: Eg. By hook or by crock – всеми правдами и неправдами; For good and for all – раз и навсегда; 2. Emotive phr.units contain some kind of attitude towards this and that subject. Eg. As welcome as flower in may; 3. Expressive phr.units are characterized by some degree of expressiveness. Eg. He is dead nuts on this girl = he is full of love; 4. Stylistically marked phr.units are those which are referred either to the formal or non-literary informal styles (jargon, slang, vulgarisms, etc.). Eg. The debt of nature = death; A Gordian knot = complicated problem; To go to Canossar = публично покаяться, унизится; 5. Elevated phr.units: Eg. To breath one’s last – до самой смерти; To fiddle while Rome burns – пир во время чумы. Within elevated phr.units he (Koonin) distinguishes: a) Archaic (the iron in one’s soul – душевные муки, to play upon advantage – обманывать, надувать) and b) Poetic phr.units (of high account – имеющий ценность, most and the least – все без исключения); 6. Foreign phr.units (barbarisms). Eg. A la carte – по заказу, a la mode – по моде, beaumonde – бомонд, высший свет, ad patress – к праотцам, ad verbum – слово в слово.
All sorts of proverbs and sayings may undergo some changes.
L.A. Barkova made a research in which she studied pragmatic effect of using phr.units in commercial advertisements: eg. The other side of the medal (usual p.unit) – the other side of the metal (ads.), so far so good (usual p.unit) – sofa so good (ads.).
Naratology-special branch of linguistics, which deals with narrative
of text. The roots of modern naratology can be found in the narrative
theory of Russian formalist such as M.Bachtin, Lotman, Tomashevskiy,
Schlovskiy, Propp – the fathers of naratology. Naratology as
a special science combines linguistics an literary. It was formed in
the last, but now its acknowledged and being developed in different
countries. The term “naratology” was proposed by Todorov by its
etymology the word “narrative” stands back to the word (latin verb)
“narrare” (“to tell” to give an account “of”, which in its
term goes back Indo-European “gna” (knowledge). Narrative-the recounting
of one or more real fiction events presented in the chronological order.
Narrative is basically a story of happenings of event either real or
imaginary which the narrator consider interesting or important. Types of narration. The author’s narrative: unfolded plot, personages of given
characteristic, the time and place of action. The authorial narrative
supplies the reader with direct information about author preferences
and objections believes and contradictions. A) entrusted narrative is
used in an afford to make the text more plausible, to impress the reader
with the facts of authenticity of the described events. The write entrust
some fictions character with the task of dealing story. The writer himself
that hides behind the figure of the narrator. Dialogue: personage express their mind in the utter speech.
In their exchange of remarks the participants of the dialogue, other
people and their action expose them self to. One of the significant
forms of the personage self-characterization-
Информация о работе Stylistics as a branch of linguistics. The problem of stylistic research