Usage of idioms in the modern English language

The Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan

 

Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages

The Chair of Simultaneous Interpretation

 

 

Faculty of Translation Studies and Foreign Philology

 

 

Begaliyeva Assiya (301 group)

 

 

 

Course paper

 

Usage of idioms in the modern English language

 

 

Specialty: 5B020726 Simultaneous interpretation from Kazakh into other languages

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Checked by Chitebayeva S.Zh.

Master of Arts

 

 

 

 

 

Almaty, 2013

 

CONTENT:

 

1. Introduction…………………………………………………….………..3
2. Main part

CHAPTER 1. Historical backgrounds: History of idioms……………………………………………………………………………6

1. Borrowings of English language during the 18th century…………………...6
2. Idioms referring to the period of time of 17 th  -  20 th   centuries…………….8

CHAPTER 2.  Usage of idioms in modern English language………………….13

2.1 Idioms used in different spheres……….………………………………………….………......................15

2.2 Differences in the usage of idioms in British and American English………………………..………………………………………………....24

III   Practical part

CHAPTER 3. How idioms are used in translation……………………………....29

IV Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...31

The list of used literature…………………………………………………………32

 

Introduction

 

Language study process requires considerable time, attention and hard work. However, this process can be really interesting and fascinating. The discipline comprises of a lot of branches about the language people speak, peculiarities of languages, influence of languages on one another, results of interchanging some grammatical or lexical units between languages, etc.  Research on language development is of a great essence while following through the history the development of culture and building relations between people.

Idioms reflect events of different periods of time. Studying idioms many authors call attention to the fact that they can more easily than other language units cumulate and store facts about the past, cultural semantics of a nation, traditions, customs, folklore, etc. because of the so called "cumulative" function of a language. The element which renders the information is called "national-cultural component". (See for example, Vereshchagin and Kostomarov, 1982:89). There exist many definitions of an idiom, but most theorists stress three main features: that this linguistic unit consists of more than one word, it is stable, and idiomatic, that is the meaning of a whole unit does not emerge from the meaning of words it consists of. (Kunin, 1984:7; Baranov and Dobrovol'skii, 1996:51).

The world can plainly see that English language is divided into several languages: British, American, Australian and Canadian. This course paper focuses mainly on American and British English languages. Both of them share a lot of common vocabulary stock – including idioms – there are two diachronically distinct types of idioms:

1. those inherited from British English but which changed some components one or two words) on the American soil
2. those the prototypes of which appeared on the American soil. Some of these idioms are borrowed by British English. In order to differentiate one from another we must know the origin.

To illustrate the first diachronic type there are some relevant examples from Collins COBUILD Idioms Workbook: British English “not see the wood for the trees” –American English “not see the forest for the trees”; British English “a storm in a teacup” – American English “A tempest in a teapot”. (Goodale, 1995:3).

Beginning several centuries ago the study of idioms is still of topical interest. The response  to the question “Why?” would be this “Idiom is a phenomenon existing in language, which in its turn is constantly changing, developing and growing. Idioms reflect almost all the changes occurring, or peoples` attitude towards it”.

In different periods of time linguists and historians made researches on how idioms emerge and change over time, how they are used in everyday life and in special spheres of human activity. Thanks to those summaries on the issue the language development is now better understood. The tendency now is being continued.

Since the world is rapidly changing nowadays, establishment of new relationships among countries is an inevitable process. New relationships can stand for business, trade, economics, culture and etc. Idioms are widely used in every branch mentioned above. Thus, translation of them play very important role.

The aim of the course paper is to define the significance of idioms in English language. Within this aim the following objectives are set to be accomplished:

1. To make a research on historical background of idioms of English language;
2. To define the role of idioms in different branches of life;
3. To analyze the importance of idioms in intercultural communications and in translation.

The method that was used while doing the course paper is the method of comparison, as known as comparative method. In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages or of one language at different stages of its development. The usage of idioms in 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries and in modern English was compared in this course work.

The course paper comprises theoretical and practical parts. The theoretical part contains general information about idioms in English language and their development over time beginning from the 18th century up to present days. The practical part of the course paper shows how idioms are used in translation and their usage in everyday life.

The structure of the course paper is as following: introduction, main part (body, consisting of theoretical and practical parts), conclusion and the list of used literature.

 

 

 

CHAPTER  1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS: HISTORY OF IDIOMS 

 

1. Borrowings of English language during the 18th century

 

What is an idiom? How many different types of idioms there are in English? Where do they come from? Are people from different cultures and backgrounds able to understand idioms from only the context? This has shown to be a subject of debate. It may be best to start with the definition of an idiom. An idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be made understood literally, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only through common use. Many linguists would say that idioms are figures of speech that deny the principle of compositionality. It might mean that idioms are words collocated together, which become fixed over time. These word expressions are first commonly used in groups, slowly changing the definitions of each of the constituents forming one word group that develops a specialized meaning, thus creating an idiom.

“Idiom” is not originally an English word – it is one of the many that have come into the language from Greek. “Idiom” means “one of a kind” and indicates that a phrase is being used with a special meaning that can be very different to the literal meaning.

 In making a study of any period from the point of view of linguistic change, it is necessary to examine many individual examples and thus to disentangle the more obvious threads of development. Before describing eighteenth-century idiomatic developments in detail, it may be observed that the vocabulary of that period is remarkable in having adopted a great number of new senses for words already existing, rather than having acquired completely new words. Some foreign borrowings occurred, such as influenza, originally an Italian word meaning any epidemic, and palaver from a Portuguese word used for talk with natives on the coast of Africa. Some formations were made from words  already existing, such as argufy. A few special forms were adopted from proper names, e.g. doily, taken from the name of a great haberdasher, of the early 18th century, or from dialect – codger. A far greater number, however, were used with a different signification, generally more idiomatic and colloquial, and one perfectly familiar to speakers of the present day, although unknown to the earlier age. Such new senses are those given to bore, fag, parade, tolerable, rigmarole, no chicken, all the rage and sweet on words which were used during the 18th century in senses with which modern ears are thoroughly conversant,  but which had previously borne a slightly different meaning.

Due to the previous impacts of French, Scandinavian and other languages on English language, lots of dialects in definite regions appeared and slang spread over population. All of this was the change that led to the wide use borrowed words. Inequality was on a high level, representatives of the poor and the rich used in their speech different slang and dialects.

Certain dialectal words appear in 18th century English, examples being clunch, used by members of the Burney family, and probably acquired at King`s Lynn, Norfolk; codger, regarded as a dialectal version of cadger, and used by Richard Burney; and jiim (meaning “smart”). Codger is the only one of these which has some claim to existence in Standard English. There are many other words adopted in the eighteenth century from slang, such as humbug and bamboozle, but these hardly rank as words borrowed from the speech of a lower social class, since slang is common to all classes, but it particularly prominent as a kind of alternative speech for those speakers of Standard English language who elect to use it.  Moreover, these words are to be considered rather as modern slang than as modern Standard English.

Later on, in the late 19th century literate people were able to recognize idioms, which have become unfamiliar now. The reason why is very simple – generation changed, language underwent considerable changes.

 

 

1.2  Idioms referring to the period of time of 17 th  -  20 th   centuries

 

As it has already been mentioned above, idioms can be considered as mirrors of the periods of time and event which took place in that time. Let me see a brief review of idioms reflecting events of the period of time from the 17th century till the 20th century. Let`s review idioms of American English, basing on the data of American Studies Perspective which  as an academic discipline numbers 60 years in the United States and about 50 years in Europe.

Idioms reflecting events of the 17th century. A very important historic event is reflected in the idiom a witch-hunt, the idiomatic meaning of which is: "a search for, and persecution of, people whose views are regarded as evil: The McCarthy witch-hunt in the United States from 1950-54 sought out members of the Communist Party." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The prototype of the idiom refers to the organized hunts for witches. And though it took place both in America and in Britain the idiom originally appeared in the United States. Against the background of extreme stress (being a colony of England, the country was in a state of war with the French and their Indian allies and in 1690 northern frontiers of New England and New York were devastated by enemy attacks) there occurred an outbreak of witch-hunt that led to accusations in witchcraft. It was especially severe in Salem Village. In 1692 nineteen people were hanged, another was pressed to death by heavy stones, and more than one hundred people were jailed. To explain this puzzling episode, the authors of the book A People and A Nation write, "to be understood it must be seen in its proper context--one of political and legal disorder, of Indian war, and of religious and economic change. It must have seemed to Puritan New Englanders as though their entire world was collapsing."(1990: 67-68).

"By the skin of my teeth:" This incredibly common, yet bizarre, phrase obviously has no physiological origin, but most English-speaking peoples have access to its very first use. The Geneva Bible, first published in 1560, translated Job 19:20 as such, and the idiom's meaning was used in much the same as it is now. Subsequent English bibles related it as either something very similar or hewing closer to referencing gums rather than literally skinned teeth.

"Green-eyed monster:" Unsurprisingly, William Shakespeare coined a bounty of idioms and expressions still used by English speakers today. His tragic drama Othello first referenced a "green-eyed monster," alluding to the jealousy and betrayal at the narrative's center. But rather than the expected vision of toothy viridian terror most people conjure up, the Bard actually used a cat seemingly playing with its captured meal before consumption.

"Let the cat out of the bag:" The most reasonable of the two historical explanations for this phrase actually ties into another one involving mammals and bagging — "a pig in a poke." Dating back to around 1530, cats often served as sneaky substitutes for their porcine peers when shady businesspeople tricked their customers. Clever consumers who exposed their deception eventually spawned the familiar idiom, which retains a similar, albeit broader, meaning today.

Idioms referring to the 18th century. There are some idioms which reflect everyday life of people during the 18th century. It refers to the idiom have an axe to grind, the idiomatic meaning of which is "to have a personal, often selfish, reason for being involved in something: I have no axe to grind--I just want to help you." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The etymology of this idiom presents a great interest. It represents a story as it is believed, told by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), American statesman, diplomat, author, scientist, and inventor, about a man who "had once asked him to demonstrate how his father's grindstone worked--and had then produced an axe which he wanted to sharpen." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995).

"Read the Riot Act:" While the idiom references "the riot act" in the abstract, such a legal proclamation did, in fact, exist. Under King George I, the real Riot Act was passed in 1714, enforced a year later and read out loud in order to quell gatherings of subjects the throne considered potentially threatening. Once concluded the "rioters" were given one hour to disperse before getting slapped with penal servitude and imprisonment sentences.

"Talking up a blue streak:" 18th Century America birthed this humorous little phrase used to describe incredibly quick speech patterns. Most etymologists and word geeks tend to think the "blue" refers to lightning tinged with the specific color. So the idiom's original metaphorical intent has stayed pretty much the exact same throughout the centuries.

Idioms referring to the 19th century. Most idioms describe the everyday life, they are connected with the tools. Fly off the handle idiomatically means "to lose one's tempo: He flew off the handle when he heard that the boys had raided his garden again." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The metaphor is based on the possibility of an axehead to fly off the handle while one is using it. According to D. Boorstin, the idioms came into use in 1825 (1993: 74). Tools and implements play an important role in the life of Americans, as in a life of any people. They are often used in idioms. The prototype of the idiom get the hang of (something) originally meant "to learn to use this or that tool." Idiomatic meaning is "to learn, or begin to understand, how to do (something): It may seem difficult at first, but you'll get the hang of it after a few weeks." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). A very important facet of life is diclosed in the idiom bark up the wrong tree, which presently means "to attempt to do the wrong thing or to do something in the wrong way or from the wrong direction: You're barking up the wrong tree if you think you will be able to influence the judge." The metaphor comes from racoon-hunting, where dogs were used to locate racoons up in trees. (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). There are many idioms including elements denoting hunting in the common vocabulary stock, most of them were inherited by American English. It is noteworthy to underline that the idioms describes hunting a new animal, racoon, the habitat of which is the North America. D.Boorstin refers this idiom to 1833 (1993: 74).

"Paint the town red:" Multiple theories exist regarding the history of the idiom that conjures up images of nocturnal bacchanalian fervor, with one in particular standing out. Around 1837, the infamous troublemaker Marquis de Waterford and his accomplices spent an evening vandalizing the English town Melton Mowbray. Some of the night's raucous festivities included literally painting various buildings — even a tollbooth — a lovely (and obvious) shade of red.

"Lowbrow," "Middlebrow" and "Highbrow:" Despite these idioms' vastly different meanings, all of them share the same pseudo-scientific roots. The once-accepted field of phrenology, which enjoyed popularity in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, wrongly posited that the size of one's forehead indicated the size of one's brain. "Highbrow," of course, was thought to indicate the most intelligence, and 1875 marked its first appearance in English vernacular.

"Selling like hotcakes:" Around 1839, this tasty term likened anything that sold out quickly to one of America's most popular foodstuffs. Hotcakes and pancakes have always enjoyed a beloved spot in the nation's culinary heart, and serve as some of the best metaphors for anything that flies off the shelves. They never blew up as one major "flash in the pan" fad, but rather endured as a classic, reliable comfort food.

Idioms referring to the 20th century. The period of Prohibition gave rise to several idioms pertaining to the organized crime. Many Americans first heard about this type of crime in the early 1920s when it was started by notorious Al Capone with bootlegging in Chicago. Later he came to control much of illegal activities: extortion, gambling, prostitution, narcotics, etc. (Flexner, 1982: 435). The activity of gangsters is reflected in the idiom take (someone) for a ride, which had a variant take (someone) for a one-way ride, the etymological meaning was "to kill someone in a moving car", it was originally gangster's slang reflecting a common practice of exterminating a person without attracting attention. Metaphorical meaning is: "to trick, chit or decieve (someone): He doesn't actually work for a charity at all, so the people who have sent him money have been taken for a ride." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). Three other idioms in the material under study also refer to the same period and all of them came from the gangster`s slang. Thus, the idiom put (someone) on the spot means "to place (someone) in a dangerous, difficult or embarrassing position: The interviewer's questions really put the Prime Minister on the spot." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). Originally it meant "to decide to kill someone." Give (someone) the works metaphorically means "to give someone the full treatment:They've certainly given her the works at the hairdresser's -- she's had her hair cut, tinted and permed." The prototype meant "to kill someone" (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). Though the prototype of the idiom stool-pigeon meaning "a pigeon tied to a stool and used as a decoy" goes back to the 1830's, the spread and active use refers to the 1920's (Flexner, 1982: 436). Idiomatic meaning is "an informer or spy especially for the police: The police received information about the planned robbery from a stoolpigeon." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995).

A later period can be seen in the idiom on the breadline meaning "with barely enough money to live on: The widow and her children were living on the breadline." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The idiom reminds about The Great Depression (1929 - the late 1930's). But the worst period was between 1929 - 1933, when unemployment reached 13 million people in 1933 which comprised one fourth of the labor force. It is at that time that soup kitchens were opened by such organizations as Red Cross and Salvation Army in the United States, the poorest people queued in breadlines. (A People..., 1990: 730) So, the prototype of the idiom meant literally "queues of destitute people waiting for free food from soup-kitchens, especially run by the government." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995).

"Screaming meemies:" At least two possible origins for this bizarre phrase exist, one as 1920s slang term for intoxication, the other an onomatopoeia describing German artillery shells used in World War I. With the latter, soldiers coming home with an unfortunate case of PTSD were often referred to as suffering the "screaming meemies." From there, the idiom eventually swelled to include anyone who felt afraid or traumatized by a scary situation.

"Back to square one:" Several different possible histories of this curious idiom exist, though only one from 1952 seems the most likely. Snakes and Ladders, known as Chutes and Ladders in the United States, may not have sent unlucky players straight to the first square. But this did not stop an Economic Journal article from wielding it as a metaphor for having to start over from the very beginning.

Idioms reflecting the way of life on the American frontier. So much has been written on the frontier that it is difficult to find any subject not covered in the literature. The role of the frontier is tremendous not only in the history but also in contemporary life of Americans. Thus, R.A.Billington sees the impact of frontier in some characteristics of the American people, "during three centuries of expansion their attitudes toward democracy and nationalism and individualism were altered, and they developed identifiable traits not shared in like degree by their European ancestors: wastefulness, inventiveness, mobility, and a dozen more." (Billington, 1991: V). Other authors describe the image of the frontier. For example, L. Schlissel underscores how different the image of frontier may be, "it could mean deep forests or grasslands stretching for a thousand miles; it could mean red dirt flats or outcroppings of rock surging up against the sky." (Schlissel, 1988:81). The impact of the frontier can be seen in many spheres of American culture.