Geography of the USA

A large population, a large land area, numerous natural resources, a stable government and a highly developed system of secondary education are almost universally regarded as substantial contributors to US economic performance. The first ingredient of a nation's economic system is its natural resources. The United States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is fortunate to have a moderate climate. Rivers flow from far within the continent, and the Great Lakes—five large, inland lakes along the U.S. border with Canada—provide additional shipping access.

The second ingredient is labor. The number of available workers and, more importantly, their productivity help determine the health of the economy. Throughout its history, the United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, and that, in turn, has helped fuel almost constant economic expansion. The promise of high wages brings many highly skilled workers from around the world to the United States.

Third, there is manufacturing and investment. In the U S., the corporation has emerged as an association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business enterprise governed by a complex set of rules and customs. Through the stock market, American banks and investors have grown their economy by investing and withdrawing capital from profitable corporations. Today in the era of globalization American investors and corporations have influence all over the world. The American government has also been instrumental in investing in the economy, in areas such as providing cheap electricity, and military contracts in times of war.

Chemical products are the leading manufacturing field. The United States is the third largest producer of oil in the world, as well as its largest importer. It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as liquid natural gas, sulfur(сера), phosphates, and salt. While agriculture accounts for just under 1% of GDP, the United States is the world's top producer of corn and soybeans. The New York Stock Exchange is the world's largest by dollar volume. Coca-Cola and McDonald's are the two most recognized brands in the world.

The United States is the largest importer of goods and third largest exporter. Exports $1.024 trillion (2006). Main export partners Canada 23%, Mexico 14%, Japan 6% and United Kingdom 3.5%. Imports $1.869 trillion. Main import partners Canada 17%, Mainland China 16%, Mexico 11% and Japan 8%.

 

 

 

 

33. History from 1865 to 1929. Reconstruction. Moving West. Industrial growth.

Reconstruction was the period after the American Civil War when the Southern states of the defeated Confederacy were reintegrated into the Union. Under Reconstruction, Republicans took control of Southern State governments from the Democrats and proceeded to comply with readmission requirements. All Southern states were readmitted by 1870, and Reconstruction continued until 1877, when the contentious Presidential election of 1876 was decided in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes, supported by Northern states, over his opponent, Samuel J. Tilden. In any case, Reconstruction generally came to an end at this time since white Northerners had lost interest in trying to protect Southern blacks from Southern whites. The end of Reconstruction marked the demise of the brief period of civil rights and civil liberties for African Americans in the South, where most lived. The South then created a segregated society through its "Jim Crow Laws", with the Southern white elites in firm political and economic control under a dominant-party system, called "The Solid South". Furthermore, local white officials and mobs practiced lynching as a mechanism of terror to keep the black population under control and banned blacks from voting or otherwise seeking individual rights. Under the authority of Attorney General Palmer arrests were made and political radicals were deported.

Moving West. After the civil war Americans settled the western half of the U.S. Miners searchers for gold and silver went to the Rocky Mountain region. Farmers settled in Minnesota and Dakotas.  Cowboys – hired horsemen. They were former state soldiers or former slaves. A cowboy was America’s hero: worked long hours for low wages. Settlers and the U.S. army fought frequent battles with Indians, a total of 7000 whites and 5000 Indians were killed in the course of the 19th century. Many more Indians died of hunger and disease caused by the westward movement of settlers. White men forced the Indians from their land & nearly destroyed all the buffalo, the main source of food for the native people. From 1865 to about 1913, the U.S. grew to become the world's leading industrial nation. The availability of land and labor, the diversity of climate, the presence of navigable canals, rivers, and coastal waterways filling the transportation needs of the emerging industrial economy, and the abundance of natural resources all fostered the cheap extraction of energy, fast transport, and the availability of capital that powered this Second Industrial Revolution. Railroads opened up the West, creating markets where nothing had existed. The First Transcontinental Railroad built by Irish and Chinese immigrants, provided access to previously remote expanses of land. New technologies in iron and steel manufacturing, combined with similar innovations in chemistry and other sciences, improved productivity. New communication tools, such as the telegraph and telephone allowed corporate managers to coordinate across great distances.

Immigration: From 1840 to 1920, a diverse stream of immigrants arrived in the USA, approximately 37 m-n in total. They came from different countries: Germany; Ireland; Italy; England, Scotland and Wales; Scandinavia; and 3.3 million people from Russia. Various ethnic groups settled in different locations. New York and other large cities of the East Coast became home to Jewish, Irish, and Italian populations, while many Germans and Central Europeans moved to the Midwest, obtaining jobs in industry and mining. At the same time, about 1 million French Canadians migrated from Canada to New England. Immigrants came for a variety of reasons, such as to find economic opportunity or to escape from the Irish Potato Famine. Many immigrants fled from religious or political persecution. Life was hard in Europe and constant wars and epidemics were reason for massive immigration toward better life in the United States. Many of these new immigrants were subject to prejudice and discrimination. And all workers faced dangerous and exploitative labor conditions prevalent throughout much of the United States. In the end, millions of new immigrants had to dig up their native roots from the Old World, and come in hope of finding a better life in the New World. This desire for freedom and prosperity led to the famous term - the American Dream.

 

34. Religion in America

America is a highly religious country, and has been since its earliest days. Nearly every religion in the world has adherents or organized institutions in the United States. American religious institutions are large, powerful and influential in social and political life. According to recent surveys, 83 percent of Americans claim to belong to a religious denomination, 40 percent claim to attend services nearly every week or more, and 59 percent claim to pray at least weekly. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a "very important" role in their lives.

The majority of Americans (78.5%) identify themselves as Christians, mostly within Protestant and Catholic denominations, accounting for 51% and 25% of the population respectively. Non-Christian religions (including Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism), collectively make up about 3.9% to 5.5% of the adult population. Another 15% of the adult population identifies as having no religious belief or no religious affiliation.

Christianity was introduced during the period of European colonization. The French, Spanish and Irish brought Catholicism, while Northern European peoples introduced Protestantism. American Christians developed in their own path.

No Religion. The US is unique among the other post-industrial countries in that it has a relatively low percentage of people claiming to have no religious beliefs.

Judaism is the 3-largest religious preference in the US. Jews have been present in the US since the 17 century. A significant number of people identify themselves as American Jews on ethnic and cultural grounds, rather than religious ones. American Jews have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural.

Buddhism entered the US during the 19 c. with the arrive of the first immigrants from Eastern Asia. The first Buddhist temple was established in San Francisco. During the late 19 century Budd. Missionaries from Japan came to the USA. 20th c saw the emergence of new approaches. Many foreign associations and teachers started to organize missionary activities.

Islam. The history of Islam in the US starts in the early 16 c with the confirmed arrival of early Muslim visitors. Much of the growth has been driven by immigration and conversion. Up to one-third of Am Muslims are African Americans.

 Hinduism. Large groups of Hindus immigrated from India and other Asian countries since the 1960-70s. During the same decades the International Society for Krishna Consciousness was founded in the USA. Hindu religion is growing in the US thanks to immigration and many Western converts. Hinduism is expanding in popularity and influence on the public life. Hindu temples are flourishing in the USA.

Other religions. Several other religions are represented in the United States, including traditional Native American spirituality, New Age spirituality, Sikhism, Jainism, Shintoism, Taoism, Caodaism and others.

Native American religion. The significant religious body among Native Americans is known as the Native American Church. It is a syncretistic church incorporating elements of native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes as well as symbolic elements from Christianity. Native Americans are the only known racial group in the US requiring a federal permit to practice their religion.

 

 

35. American holidays.

There are 8 major unique American holidays:

1. Thanksgiving Day is celebrated on the 4th Thursday of November: people thank God for good harvest, which saved Pilgrims from hunger in 1621 and eat roast turkey, pumpkin pie, etc. Every family gathers for traditional day dinner. Many people attend religious services. The next day most people return to work, but some take day off.

2.  Martin Luther King Day is celebrated on the 3rd Monday of January. The main purpose of this holiday is to honour a black clergyman, who tried to win civil rights for Blacks & was killed in 1968.

3. President’s Day is celebrated on the 3rd Monday in February. It honours all past presidents of the USA.

4. Memorial Day is observed annually on the last Monday of May. It honours the nation’s armed services killed in wartime. The holiday is traditionally marked by parades, memorial speeches and ceremonies, and the decoration of graves with flowers and flags. Memorial Day was first observed on May 30, 1868, on the order of General John Alexander Logan for the purpose of decorating the graves of the American Civil War dead.

5. Independence day is an annual holiday commemorating the formal adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, in Philadelphia. Although the signing of the Declaration wasn’t completed until August, the Fourth of July holiday has been accepted as the official anniversary of American independence and it is celebrated in all states of the USA.

6. Labor Day is a United States federal holiday observed on the first Monday in September. Traditionally, Labor Day is celebrated by most Americans as the symbolic end of the summer. The holiday is often regarded as a day of rest and parties. Forms of celebration include picnics, barbecues, public art events, fireworks displays and water sports. Events held by labor organizations often feature political themes and appearances by candidates for office, especially in election years.

7.  Columbus Day is celebrated on the 2nd Monday in October. It is devoted to the great historical event – discovery of America by Columbus in 1492.

8. Veteran’s Day is celebrated on the 11th of November (originally it was called Armistice Day–to honor soldiers, who served in WW1, but now it honors veterans of all the wars).

Other holidays: Mother’s Day–2nd Sunday in May, Father’s Day–3rd Sunday in June, Christmas (December25), New Year’s Day (most Americans celebrate with friends. One of the nosiest and crowded of New Year’s Eve celebration takes place in New York at Times square), Easter (always falls on Sunday. It’s a day of worship and gathering of the family), Halloween (the last day of October. Originally a religious holiday – the evening before All Saints), Valentine’s Day (14th of February. Americans give symbolic gifts).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

36. The media of the USA consist of several different types of communications: television, radio, cinema, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-based Web sites. Many of the Media are controlled by large for-profit corporations who get income from advertising, subscriptions, and sale of copyrighted material.

Television in the US is regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).There are several thousand local stations, of which many belong to the 7 nationwide commercial broadcast networks. Traditionally, there were 3: NBC, ABC, and CBS. 4 newer networks are Fox, the My Network TV and ION Television. There is also a noncommercial public television network, PBS, which is partially subsidized by the federal government. Public access T. is open cable channels allowing for citizen produced programming to appear on local cable networks. Besides, there are also many networks which can be received on a T. only after arranging for a subscription to a cable or digital satellite service (HBO and CNN).

Radio. American R .broadcasts in 2 bands: FM and AM. Some stations are only talk R.—featuring interviews and discussions—while music R. stations broadcast one particular type of music. National Public R. is the nation's primary public R. network, but most R. stations are commercial and profit-oriented. The 2 biggest subscriptions based R. services are Sirius Satellite R. and XM Satellite R., which have recently both merged together to form yet unnamed satellite R. entity. R. music channels are commercial free. Satellite R also is not regulated by the FCC.

Newspapers. All major metropolitan areas have their own local NPs. Most general-purpose NPs are either being printed one time a week, usually on Thursday or Friday, or are printed daily. Weekly NPs tend to have much smaller circulation and are more prevalent in rural communities or small towns. Major cities often have "alternative weeklies" to complement the mainstream daily paper(s)(New York City's Village Voice or Los Angeles' L.A. Weekly).Major cities may also support a local business journal, trade papers relating to local industries and papers for local ethnic and social groups. The primary source of NP income is advertising, rather than circulation income. The largest newspapers (by circulation) in the US are USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, the New York Times and the Los Angeles Times.

Magazines. Thanks to the huge size of the English-speaking North American M market, the United States has a large MZ industry with hundreds of MZs serving almost every interest. Most MZs are owned by one of the large M. conglomerates or by one of their smaller regional brethren. The U.S. has three leading weekly news MZs: TIME, Newsweek and U.S. News and World Report. News tends to be center-right, although all three strive to provide objective news reporting and limit personal bias to the opinion pages. The U.S. also has over a dozen major political MZs. There are also dozens of MZs published by professional organizations for their members, such as Communications of the ACM (for computer science specialists) and the ABA Journal (for lawyers).

Internet. The I. has provided a means for NP and other M. organizations to deliver news and the means to look up old news. Some organizations only make limited amounts of their output available for free, and charge for access to the rest. Other organizations allow their archives to be freely browsed. It is possible that the latter type obtain more influence, as they are true to the spirit of freedom of information by virtue of making it free. While proprietary archives are slowly exposed to the public after many decades, organizations that maintain immediately-updating resources have more control over what will be remembered by the general public in the near future.

 

 

 

 

 

 

37. Health care in the United States is provided by many separate legal entities. Health care facilities are largely owned and operated by the private sector. Health insurance is primarily provided by the private sector, with the exception of programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, TRICARE, the Children's Health Insurance Program, and the Veterans Health Administration.

More money per person is spent on health care in the USA than in any other nation in the world. The World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the U.S. health care system as the highest in cost, first in responsiveness and 72nd by overall level of health (among 191 member nations included in the study).

Facilities

In the United States, ownership of the health care system is mainly in private hands, though federal, state, county, and city governments also own certain facilities.

The non-profit hospitals share of total hospital capacity has remained relatively stable (about 70%) for decades. There are also privately owned for-profit hospitals as well as government hospitals in some locations, mainly owned by county and city governments.

There is no nationwide system of government-owned medical facilities open to the general public but there are local government-owned medical facilities open to the general public.

The federal Veterans Health Administration operates VA hospitals open only to veterans. The Indian Health Service operates facilities open only to Native Americans from recognized tribes.

Health care payment. Around 84.7% of citizens have some form of health insurance; either through their employer or the employer of their spouse or parent (59.3%), purchased individually (8.9%), or provided by government programs (27.8%).

Insurance for dental and vision care is usually sold separately. Prescription drugs are often handled differently than medical services, including by the government programs.

Charity care for those who cannot pay is sometimes available, and is usually funded by non-profit foundations, religious orders, government subsidies, or services donated by the employees.

Emergency health care is generally more expensive than an urgent care clinic or a doctor's office visit, especially if a condition has worsened due to putting off needed care.

Public. Government programs directly cover 27.8% of the population (83 million), including the elderly, disabled, children, veterans, and some of the poor, and federal law mandates public access to emergency services regardless of ability to pay.

Government funded programs include:

Medicare, generally covering citizens and long-term residents 65 years and older and the disabled.

Medicaid, generally covering low income people in certain categories, including children, pregnant women, and the disabled. (Administered by the states.)

State Children's Health Insurance Program, which provides health insurance for low-income children who do not qualify for Medicaid. (Administered by the states, with matching state funds.)

Various programs for federal employees, including TRICARE for military personnel (for use in civilian facilities)

The Veterans Administration, which provides care to veterans, their families, and survivors through medical centers and clinics.

National Institutes of Health treats patients who enroll in research for free.

Government run community clinics

Medical Corps of various branches of the military

Medicare is a social insurance program administered by the United States government, providing health insurance coverage to people who are aged 65 and over, or who meet other special criteria. Medicare operates similar to a single-payer health care system, but the key difference is that its coverage only extends to 80% of any given medical cost; the remaining 20% of cost must be paid by other means, such as privately-held supplemental insurance, or paid by the patient.

Medicaid is the United States health program for eligible individuals and families with low incomes and resources. It is a means tested program that is jointly funded by the state and federal governments, and is managed by the states. Among the groups of people served by Medicaid are certain eligible U.S. citizens and resident aliens, including low-income adults and their children, and people with certain disabilities. Poverty alone does not necessarily qualify an individual for Medicaid.

 

38. The American Family.

Clearly the American Family, like all families in the Western Industrial countries, is now profoundly different from what it had been in the recorded past. It is typically a household with few children, with both parents working and with mothers producing their children at ever older ages. At the same time more adults than ever before are living alone or with unmarried companions and more women are giving birth out of wedlock. The traditional family with a single breadwinner working alone to sustain the family is no longer the norm. Only one in 5 married couples had just a single male, working outside the home. Only 36% has the mother staying at home with children and not working. More and more women are reducing the number of children they have. Women are marrying later and begin child bearing at later ages. Today both marriage partners need to bring in income to meet family bills. Although women are less financially dependent on their husbands, they continue bear the major burden of household and child care.  After the Industrial Revolution the Amer. Family has been stripped of two of its traditional social functions: serving as unit for economic production and as the school for the vocational training of children. Two functions remains: the physical and emotional gratification of the family’s adult members and the socialization of the children into community. There are some social policies that are needed to protect the AF. 1) Protection of young mothers and their children against poverty (payment locks mothers into a cycle of dependency; health care coverage is uncertain and variable; Medicaid covers half of the coast of health care at best). The second policy calls for a federal legislation mandate at least 3 month paid leave with guaranteed job protection for either the mother or father after the birth of an infant. In 1990 Bush voted an unpaid leave bill. Even were parental leave available not all mothers would use it. When there is a father and he prefers to be the one to stay home with the baby, that may be a welcome alter native. The third element is high quality infant and child day care. And the fourth element is education for parenthood. These policies will not bring about the Golden Age of the family. The most they can do is to cushion children against poverty and monitor the state of the children.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

39. Mid.Atl.States.3 states: New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania. The traditional M-A States comprise the most densely-populated of the 9 regions. From early colonial times, the M-A region was settled by a wider range of European peoples than in New Eng. or the South. Early settlers were farmers, traders, fishermen, and the region served as a strategic bridge b/n North and South. The MA states served as the "melting pot" of new immigrants from Europe. Pennsylvania (Harrisburg) has been known as the Keystone State, based in part upon its central location among the original 13 Colonies. It was also a keystone state economically, having both the industry common to the North and the agriculture common to the South. Philadelphia is the largest city and is home to a major seaport and shipyards on the Delaware River. P's diverse geography also produces a variety of climates. Straddling 2 major zones, the southeastern corner of the state posses the warmest cl. P became the 2d state to ratify the Constitution in 1787. P ranks 19th overall in agricultural production. New York (Albany) is the 3d most populous, 27th largest state. NY City is known for its history as a gateway for immigration and its status as a financial, cultural and manufacturing center. NY was inhabited by the Native Am groups in the early 17th c. About 1/3 of all of the battles of the Revolutionary War took place in NY. It became an independent state in 1776. NY borders 2 Great Lakes (Erie and Ontario). Contrasting with NYCity's urban atmosphere, the vast majority of the state is dominated by farms, forests, mountains, lakes. NY's Adirondack Park is the largest state park in the US. Niagara Falls is a popular attraction. Weather in NY is heavily influenced by 2 continental air masses: a warm, humid from the southwest and a cold, dry from the northwest. If NY were an independent nation, it would rank as the 16th largest economy in the world. New Jersey(Trenton)is inhabited by Native Am-s for more than 2,800 years, the 1 European settlements in the area were established by the Swedes and Dutch in the early 1600s. The State's name was taken from the largest of the Eng. Channel Islands, Jersey. The Eng. later seized control of the region. NJ was an imp. site during the Am Revolutionary War. Later, working-class cities such as Paterson and Trenton helped to drive the Ind. Rev. in the 19th c. NJ can be broadly divided into 3 geographic regions: North J, Central J, South J. Most of NJ has a temperate cl except in south that has humid subtropical cl. The summers are very warm to hot and humid. The winters in NJ are usually cold. NJ's economy is centered around the pharmaceutical industry, chemical development, food processing, electric equipment, tourism. Shipping is a strong industry because of the state's strategic location. NJ is the birthplace of many modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the light bulb, transistors, the electric train.