Means of realization of irony

     For example:

     Tu appelles ça une bicoque, mais c'est un palais (about a half-pulled down house: "And you call it a shanty, but it is a whole palace").

     Euphemism - a turn of speech, like periphrasis. The functional peculiarity of euphemism is softening of coarse/rude, improper and insulting notions, circumstances and phenomena [Рубайло, 1961, 71].

     For example:

     Cette catastrophe qui a cause la mort de trois enfants est qualifiée dans la presse bourgeoise comme un petit incident (This catastrophe, which had taken away the lives of three children, was regarded by the bourgeois press as a small accident) [Потоцкая, 1990, 203-204].

     Irony may also be realized by periphrasis, simile, metaphor; sometimes through metonymy or phraseology.

     Anticlimax may be used with an ironic aim, too. Anticlimax or bathos appears as a result of adding any detail, relaxing the impression from the previous thought. Anticlimax is used mainly with humorous or ironical or purpose.

     A woman who could face the very devil himself- or a mouse - loses her grip and goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning. (M. Twain)

     Harris never "weeps, he knows not why." If Harris's eyes fill with tears, you can bet it is because Harris has been eating raw onions... (Jerome K. Jerome) [Кузнец, Скребнев, 1960, 38].

     Using the negative in the positive meaning, and more often the positive in the negative meaning, sometimes may be realized by antiphrasis: ce qu'il est fort ce gosse (about a feeble child) [Потоцкая, 1990, 204].

     On the syntactical level the role of rhetorical questions must be emphasized for expressing irony [Домашнев, Шишкина, Гончарова, 1989, 92-93].

      The realization of irony knows no limitations in linguistic devices and the only constant marker of irony is violation of the pragmatical rules - contextual irrelevance [Лимарева, 1997, 15].

     Thus, the content of irony may be whether criticism disguised by praise or the conflict between the ideal and the real. As for the form of irony it can be realized either by stylistic means or stylistically neutral means. So, irony can be realized practically by any stylistic device.

 

    

 

 

 

 

Chapter II Realization of irony in the text.

2.1. The scheme of analysis.

 

     As we differentiate between the ironical sense and irony as a stylistic device we come to the conclusion that ironical sense can be expressed by different means, including irony as a stylistic device. In this paper we investigate the form of expressing of irony. In our work we analyze only verbal irony, as only this type of irony is presented in literary works. Situational irony is irony of fate, irony of the situation, so it is not limited by linguistic means.

     As the ironical sense can be realized by a great variety of means, first we consider the examples of irony realized by stylistically neutral means and then we discuss the examples of irony realized by stylistically colored means.

     The scheme of the analysis is as follows:

1. the type of irony according to the context: associative/situational;

2. the type of irony according to the direction of influence: irony of the author/irony between the communicants;

3. the content of irony;

4. the means of realization of irony.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.2. Realization of irony by stylistically neutral means.

 

     Many linguists studying the phenomenon of irony state one of the most essential features of its expression – a special intonation pattern. Even the simplest word pronounced with this special melody makes the utterance sound ironically. In the following examples irony, though it is expressed by stylistically neutral means, is emphasized by the intonation.

 

1. "Years ago she was quoted as saying she would be in the witness room when Sam Cayhall was executed".

"Not exactly a forgiving spirit" [Grisham, 1994, 75].

     Person who derives pleasure from somebody’s execution is mildly referred to as just not having a very forgiving spirit.

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

2. GRIGGS: I know nothing of tactics, Mr. Denery. Certainly not of yours.

NICK: Then what the hell are you doing as a general?

GRIGGS: Masquerading. They had a costume left over and they lent it to me [Hellman, 1972, 189].

     Griggs is ironical about his interlocutor’s stupidity, explaining to him his “competence” as a general.

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

3. At a table he [Soapy] sat and consumed beefsteak, flapjacks, doughnuts and pie. And then to the waiter he betrayed the fact that the minutest coin and himself were strangers.

"Now, get busy and call a cop," said Soapy. "And don't keep a gentleman waiting".

"No cop for youse," said the waiter, with a voice like butter cakes and an eye like the cherry in a Manhattan cocktail [Henry, 1977, 40].

     Here the speaker is ironical about himself, because he, being a bum, calls himself “gentleman” and his interlocutor, the waiter develops his thought addressing him with “youse”.

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

4. "He's much older than you."

"I've knocked a bit of my age," Trudy said. "Do you mind not letting on?"

"How much have you knocked off?"

"Seven years."

"Very courageous," Gwen said.

"What do you mean?"

"That you are brave" [Spark, 1976, 235].

     Gwen, while praising Trudy’s courage, really criticizes her silly behavior.

1) In the given example irony is associative, as the figurative meaning in this case is realized gradually.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is criticism concealed by praise.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

5. The following example describes Frederick, an untalented but very ambitious actor, who is being tried for a new film.

After being tested in every possible way he did not get the part. [...] The producer, anxious to keep peace [...] told Frederick he was too good an actor for this sort of thing [Spark, 1976, 42].

1) In the given example irony is associative, as the figurative meaning in this case is realized gradually.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place, between Frederick and his producer.

3) The content of irony here is criticism concealed by praise.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

6. "You mean you're getting tired of dishpan hands?"

"Oh, no. I love washing dishes in that minisink. It's the high point of my day" [Stewart, 1971, 62].

     Here the speaker is ironical about her interlocutor’s inability to understand such simple things, that one cannot love washing dishes.

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

7. "He's an articled clerk. He seems to know his job. He can't get over the way our accounts are kept. He told me he never expected a theatre to be run on such businesslike lines. He says the way some of those firms in the city keep their accounts is enough to turn your hair gray."

Julia smiled at the complacency on her husband's handsome face.

“He's a young man of tact” [Maugham, 2002, З].

     Here Julia says that somebody who criticizes others is tactful meaning just the opposite.

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place. Julia mocks at the man they are speaking about with her husband.

3) The content of irony here is criticism concealed by praise.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

8. In the following example Julia, a married middle-aged woman, who is dissatisfied with her married life, speaks with her young lover, Tom.

He [Tom] was holding a glass in his hands and yielding to a sudden impulse, he flung it into the fireplace. It shattered.

"You needn't break up the happy home," said Julia ironically.

"I'm sorry. I didn't mean to do that." [Maugham, 2002, 208].

     Julia refers to her home as “happy” though we know that it is not at all so.

1) In the given example irony is associative as one needs to know pretext to perceive irony.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

9. In the following example we observe the conversation between Julia, a great actress, who always ignored her child and family because of her career, and her grown-up son.

[Julia] "Do you believe I love you?"

[Roger] "In your way."

Julia's face was suddenly discomposed.

"If you only knew the agony I suffered when you were ill! I don't know what I should have done if you'd died!"

"You would have given a beautiful performance of a bereaved mother at the bier of her only child" [Maugham, 2002, 271].

     Here the son hints at the showy character of his mother, her insincerity and ambitions.

1) In the given example irony is associative as it demands the knowledge of the context for its perception.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place and one of them sneers at the other.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

10. In the following example Julia, the great actress, is speaking with her maid, Evie.

[Julia] "What's that dress doing on that chair?"

[Evie] "That? That's the dress you said you'd wear for the party."

"Put it away. I can't go to the party without Mr. Gosselyn."

"Since when?"

"Shut up, you old hag [...]" [Maugham, 2002, 293].

     Here Evie hints that actually Julia always went to parties without her husband, so she is being hypocritical.

1) In the given example irony is associative, as the figurative meaning in this case is realized gradually.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place and one of them sneers at the showy morality of the other.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

11. In the following example Jamie, a young alcoholic, speaks with his father, Tyrone, known for his economical character.

JAMIE: Then I'd better go uptown with Edmund. The bad news coming on top of what's happened to Mama may hit him hard.

TYRONE: (Forgetting his quarrel) Yes, go with him, Jamie. Keep up his spirits, if you can. (He adds caustically) If you can without making it an excuse to get drunk!

JAMIE: What would I use for money? The last I heard they were still selling booze, not giving it away [...] [O'Neill, 1972, 59].

     First, here the father is ironical about his son’s addiction to alcohol. Secondly, the son hints that the father hasn’t given him any money so that he could  not buy anything, e.g. alcohol.

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately and associative in the second case as it requires the knowledge of the context for its perception.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place and one of them sneers at the other.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

 

12. I went over to the door.

"Who is it?" I asked with my lips to the panel.

It was her voice all right. "Open up, silly. It's the Duchess of Windsor."

"Just a second" [Chandler, 1983, 206].

     Here the woman mocks her interlocutor’s slowness of reaction and misunderstanding of the situation.

1) In the given example irony is associative, as the figurative meaning in this case is realized gradually. From the context we know that the woman is not a duchess.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place and one of them sneers at the other.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by stylistically neutral means.

     Thus, in the analyzed examples, irony is mostly of the associative type. According to the direction of irony here we mostly observe irony between the interlocutors. The content of irony in these cases is conflict between the ideal and the real. As for the means of realization of irony in all the above-mentioned examples irony is expressed be stylistically neutral means, where the signal of irony is the context, or the intonation, with which the utterance is pronounced.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.3. Realization of irony by stylistically colored means.

 

     Irony as the sense can be expressed by different stylistic devices, including irony as a stylistic device. Irony as a stylistic device is based on an implicit contrastive change in the meaning of a word, a sentence, a part of text.

 

1. In the following example the husband is ironical about the behavior of his wife, calculated for effect, which is probably caused by the fact of her being a good actress.

 She [Julia] swept up and down the room [...] She threw up her hands to heaven.

"I might be squint-eyed and hump-backed. I might be fifty. Am I so unattractive as all that? It's so humiliating to have to beg for love. Misery, misery".

"That was a good movement, dear. As if you were throwing a cricket ball. Remember that".

She gave him a look of scorn [Maugham, 2002, 60].

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is criticism concealed by praise.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by irony as a stylistic device (That was a good movement, dear) and simile (As if you were throwing a cricket ball).

 

2. In the following example Jenny from a poor family visits her wealthy boyfriend’s house and is impressed by what she sees there.

(Jenny is talking to Oliver)

"Jesus Christ," said Jenny. "I saw half the buildings at Harvard hanging here."

"It's all crap" I told her.

"I didn't know you were related to Sewall Boat House, too," she said.

"Yeah. I come from a long line of wood and stone" [Segal, 1970, 45].

     Here Oliver, feeling uncomfortable with his wealth, tries to mock at his descent.

1) In the given example irony is situational as it is understood immediately.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as the character, Oliver, sneers at himself.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by pun (I come from a long line of wood and stone).

 

3. In the following example Soapy, a poor man, is trying to commit a crime just to go to the special institution for homeless people for the winter. He dashes a stone through the glass of a window.

People came running around the corner, a policeman in the lead. Soapy stood still, with his hands in his pockets, and smiled at the sight of brass buttons.

"Where's the man that done that?" inquired the officer, excitedly.

"Don't you figure out that I might have done something to do with it?" said Soapy, not without sarcasm, but friendly, as one greets good fortune.

The policeman's mind refused to accept Soapy even as a clue. Men who smash windows do not remain to parley with the law's minions. They take to their heels [Henry, 1977, 39].

     Here Soapy mocks at the policeman’s slow reaction and stupidity.

1) In the given example irony is associative, as the figurative meaning in this case is realized gradually.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is the conflict between the ideal and the real.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by rhetorical question (Don't you figure out that I might have done something to do with it?).

 

4. In the following example Franny and Lane, a couple, start their weekend date by arguing over the literature matters in the restaurant.

Lane looked at her, then exhaled a thin, overly expressive stream of smoke down at his plate. "This is going to be a real little doll of a weekend," he said. [...]

Franny was annoyed [Salinger, 1982, 190].

1) In the given example irony is associative as it needs the knowledge of the context for its perception.

2) Irony here is realized between the communicants, as a dialogue between two characters takes place.

3) The content of irony here is criticism concealed by praise.

4) The ironical meaning is expressed by a reversed epithet (This is going to be a real little doll of a weekend).