Religion: Its Past and Present; Its Role in British Society

The economic climate in post-war Britain changed rapidly. There were fewer jobs and opportunities for people compared with the early 1950s. Inevitably, the government began to restrict migrant workers and in 1961, the commonwealth Immigration Act was passed which came into force the following year. Arguably, this Act was the turning point in the growth of the Muslim population in Britain. The eighteen month long gap between the passing of the Immigration Act and its enforcement provided time for reflection for those who were working in Britain: did they want to return to their country of origin, or make Britain their home? Basically, the Act imposed restrictions on adults intending to work in Britain. By 1964, the Ministry of Labour stopped granting permission for the unskilled to work in Britain. The impact of this legislation was such that each single male who had formerly shared a house with others, now began looking for houses for their families in a nearby neighbourhood. Once their families arrived, the immediate concern of the parents was for their children. They wanted to impart religious education by teaching the Qur’an, basic beliefs and the practices of Islam to their children. This meant allocating a house for their children’s education in the neighbourhood and using the same house for the five daily prayers. Muslim dietary laws saw the development of halal butcher shops and the import of Asian spices. This also gave birth to the Asian corner shops in Britain. In this way, the growth of the Muslim neighbourhood had begun.

The second wave of migration came from East African countries. Asians, who were occupied in the wholesale and distributive trade in Africa, provided the necessary banking and financial services. Their participation in the economy was checked by the Africanization policy of the newly independent African countries. Banks and private businesses were nationalized. This left Asian businessmen and their families with a stark choice between African enterprise, under strict regulation, or leaving the country. They opted for the latter. A large number of Asians had British passports, and so, they decided to come to Britain. This resulted in the Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1968, which removed the right of entry to the U.K. for passport holders living abroad.

One important point to remember though is that the Muslim community’s development in Britain has been overwhelmingly on religious lines, as Punjabis from Pakistan and Sylhetis from Bangladesh have nothing in common culturally, socially, or linguistically. The Punjabi dress, shalwar qamis, and the Sylheti lungi for men and sari for women are not comparable. Differences in eating preferences have similarly affected the varying vocabularies. For example, a Punjabi might ask whether you have had a roti, (meaning did you have your dinner), whilst a Bengali will emphasize bhat (rice). However, in Britain, Bengalis and Punjabis co-operated in establishing mosques and schools for their children. This co-operation was based more on denominational lines rather than geographical or linguistic grounds. Nonetheless, the Punjabis and Bangalis have obtained Local Authority grants on linguistic and cultural grounds. This is due to the fact that the Local Authorities’ help is available on ethnic, linguistic and racial grounds and not on religious ones [22].

Contemporary Challenges

Muslims in Britain came, overwhelmingly, from Muslim majority countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Middle Eastern countries. Arriving in a non-Muslim society, they faced language difficulties, cultural apprehensions, and educational expectations; all in all, an overwhelming situation. A substantial number of immigrants thought they were entering into a Christian country. The perception of the West and Western countries, such as Britain, was of a Christian population, full of religious spirit, with churches full on Sundays. What they saw, though, was a completely different and unexpected picture of a secular, modern culture where Christianity is marginalized. It has merely a decorative purpose but little value in the everyday lives of people. Furthermore, critical inquiries about God, prophets, especially Jesus, and religion in general were vilified on television and in their daily encounters with fellow workers in factories and other places.  These views on religion, in general, baffled the Muslim community. This perception, rightly or wrongly, remains in the Muslim psyche. Furthermore, the immigrant communities’ own understanding of Islam was marinated with their cultural understanding of Islam. Thus customs and traditions have played an important role in defining their religion in Britain.

The indigenous community perceived the newly arrived Muslim community as having a monolithic culture with monolithic practices and religious beliefs. They saw Asian, but little difference between Sikhs, Muslims or Hindus. Only five years ago, I attended a Christian-Muslim dialogue group where at lunch time we were served lamb and vegetables along with other items on the menu. One of our hosts asked a member of the kitchens staff whether he had bought the meat from a halal butcher. He replied yes, that he had bought it from an Asian butcher. The host asked if the butcher was a Muslim. He did not know; he presumed that all Asian butchers are halal and had not thought it important enough to inquire about [7, p.69].

To sum up, Islam is the second largest religion in the United Kingdom. Muslims in Britain came, overwhelmingly, from Muslim majority countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Middle Eastern countries during the first wave of migration. The second wave of migration came from East African countries. In most cases these migrations were provoked by colonization and seeking for work.

 

 

3.2 Hinduism in the United Kingdom

 

In the 2001 UK census there were 558,342 Hindus in the United Kingdom. The Hindu Forum of Britain has extrapolated this in 2006 to a figure of 750,000 Hindus based on the levels of immigration since 2001, and the number of Hindus who did not declare their faith in the 2001 Census. Many stakeholders in Government and media believe this figure to be more reflective of the Hindu population in the UK. A recent article in the British press reported the Hindu population within Britain to be close to 1.5 Million.

History

Hinduism has been in the United Kingdom since the early 19th century. There were Hindu visitors to the UK from the princely states of India. Occasionally some Hindu social reformers visited the UK. Raja Ram Mohun Roy (born in India in 1773) was founder of a Hindu reform movement in India. He came to England in 1829 to visit his Christian friends. He also had audience with King William the IV. Roy died in Bristol four years later.

Early Hindus in the United Kingdom were invariably students. Hinduism received widespread attention in the Victorian era largely due to the work of Theosophical Society and emergence of the new field, Indology.

Three waves of migration of Hindus into the United Kingdom.

The first wave was before India’s Independence in 1947. Hindu migration to the United Kingdom was minuscule and largely temporary. But after independence, the economic conditions of 1960s compelled many Indians to immigrate to the United Kingdom in search of greener pastures. The fact that Indians, as Commonwealth citizens, didn’t require a visa to enter or live in the United Kingdom also helped.

The second wave of Hindu migration occurred in the 1970s after Idi Amin‘s expulsion of Gujarati Hindus (who were British Overseas Citizens) from Uganda brought another wave of Hindu immigrants to the United Kingdom. Initially, Hindu immigration into the United Kingdom was limited to Punjabi and Gujarati Hindus, but, by 2000, small Hindu communities of every ethnicity could be found in the UK. The United Kingdom is also host to a large immigrant community of Sri Lankan Hindus who are mostly Tamils.

The last wave of migration of Hindus to the UK began in the 1990s and continues to this day. This phase saw two types of people settling in the UK - refugees from Sri Lanka and Hindu professionals including doctors and software engineers from India [21].

Assimilation and community issues

By and large, Hindus have assimilated into the British culture. They are generally well-off, and are projected as a model minority.

Connecting British Hindus: An enquiry into the identity and public engagement of Hindus in Britain, a July 2006 Home Office-funded report by the Hindu Forum of Britain and the Runnymede Trust, explored issues in the British Hindu community. Key findings include the need to collaboratively improve: teaching about Hinduism in schools, monitoring of media stereotypes, dialogue with other faith communities (particularly Muslim communities), and inclusion of the British Hindu experience in anti-racist work. Another finding reported on the need for an umbrella organization to assist with establishing new temples and community centers. Other key findings focused on issues within the community: the need to address religious and caste discrimination, women’s leadership roles, engagement with disabled Hindus, and outreach to and support for older people. Among 680 self-selected respondents to an online survey on the Hindu Forum of Britain website, about 75% reported that they mostly or completely agreed with the statement «I describe myself as a Hindu, rather than by my ethnicity» [16].

To sum up, nowadays Hinduism is firmly established religion in the United Kingdom. There were three waves of migration of Hindus. The first wave was due to searching of greener pastures, the occurred in the 1970s and the third began in the 1990s and continues to this day. Largely Hindus have assimilated into the British culture and are considered to be as a model minority.

 

 

3.3 Sikhism in the United Kingdom

 

According to the 2001 census there is an estimated number of 500,000 Sikhs. Most have emigrated from Punjab (India), though there was a sizeable emigration from East Africa, notably Kenya. 56.1 per cent of all Sikhs are British-born. 73.1 per cent of Sikhs live in the South East, Greater London area and the West Midlands [19].

The first recorded Sikh settler in Britain was Maharaja Duleep Singh in 1854. Duleep Singh was the last ruler of the Sikh kingdom of Punjab. The Maharaja was dethroned after 6 years rule, and exiled to Britain in 1849 at the age of 14, after the Anglo-Sikh wars. There is a statue to the Maharaja at Butten Island, Thetford, Norfolk, near the Elveden Estate where he lived in Britain. The statue was unveiled by the Prince of Wales in 1999. Despite the early arrival of the Maharaja, the first Sikh Gurdwara (temple) was not established until 1911, at Putney in London.

The Sikh Immigrants to United Kingdom

The first Sikh migration came in the 1930s. It was mostly of men from the Punjab seeking work in British industry, which had a shortage of unskilled labor. Most of the new arrivals worked in industries like foundries and textiles. These new arrivals mostly settled in London, Birmingham and West Yorkshire. The first batch of Sikh migrants usually removed the outward religious symbols (turban, hair and beard) as racist prejudice in Britain would have kept them out of work. The first wave of Sikh immigrants to Britain was the soldier survivors of the World War I though most of them came afterwards from Punjab, after India became independent. They were followed by thousands of Sikhs from East Africa, where many had lived previously [13, p.107-108].

The Success of Sikhs in United Kingdom

They have done remarkably well in the last fifty years in many fields from farming and commerce to engineering, medicine and law. Today, among them are distinguished businessmen, lawyers, judges, doctors and software experts. As enterprising, resilient and industrious community, they have played a vital role in various professions, business and politics not only in India, but also in countries which they have made their home. Through hard work, perseverance and honesty, they have made a life for themselves and their families.

In recognition of their contribution to the British society, Prime Minister Tony Blair paid them a glowing tribute on the occasion of the 2003 Vaisakhi celebration in London. Mr. Blair said, «I know that British Sikhs have made a great contribution to the economic, cultural and political life of the United Kingdom, and I firmly believe that your faith and culture have brought tremendous strengths and benefits to our society. Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales praised the Sikh community for «having served this country with great loyalty for hundreds of years, adding to the rich tapestry in Britain.»

Sikhism in Britain is experiencing a revival in faith and following amongst its youth. Sikh organizations, most notably the Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha in Southall, West London have contributed to this with the acquisition and funding of several educational centers and schools. Media exposure has also led to renewed interest from the indigenous population, with eminent historians such as Professor H.L. Bradshaw commenting that Sikhism is the «faith of the New Age»

Another statistic showing how widely the Sikhs are accepted and praised within the wider framework of British society was a recent survey conducted by a British newspaper of different ethnicities and their wealth. An example was house ownership, where Sikhs had a remarkably high figure of 82%. Overall, Sikhs were placed at number 1, above Jews and Christians who came second and third respectively [16].

To sum up, Sikhism in Britain is experiencing a revival in faith. The first Sikh migration came in the 1930s. Thousands of Sikhs are from East Africa. British Sikhs have made a great contribution to the economic, cultural and political life of the United Kingdom. As industrious community they play a vital role in various professions, business and politics.

 

 

3.4 Judaism in the United Kingdom

 

Judaism in Britain is a very vague term, because there are an estimated 350,000 Jews in the UK. Of those, approximately 20% are Reform or Liberal, which are two separate movements.

Liberal Judaism in the United Kingdom is one of the two forms of Progressive Judaism found in the United Kingdom. Liberal Judaism, which developed at the beginning of the twentieth century, is less conservative than UK Reform Judaism.

However, Liberal Judaism represents only a little over 1% of the Jewish community of Britain.

Beliefs and Practices

To quote the Movement’s website, «It reverences Jewish tradition, and seeks to preserve all that is good in the Judaism of the past. But it lives in the present. It desires that Judaism shall be an active force for good in the lives of Jewish individuals, families and communities today, and that it shall make its contribution to the betterment of human society. And it stresses «the full equality and participation of men and women in every sphere of religious life; an emphasis on ethical conduct above ritual observance; an affirmation of each individual’s freedom to act responsibly in accordance with the dictates of the informed religious conscience; a pride in combining our Jewish heritage with full participation in the civic life of this country; and an awareness of our duty not only to the Jewish people and to the State of Israel, but also to the entire human family, each one of whom is created in the Divine image».

The British scholar Daniel Langton‘s study of the spiritual founder of the Liberal Synagogue, Claude Montefiore, has caused recent debate. In his account of the origins of the movement, Langton claims that the aspirations of Montefiore have not been realised: Montefiore’s passionate anti-Zionism was soon marginalised and his declared aim to amalgamate «the best of Judaism and Christianity» led him to propound an unpopular view of Jesus and Paul of Tarsus as religious authorities of real interest to modern Jews. This did not go undisputed, and met with strong criticism in the Jewish Chronicle from the Liberal Jewish Synagogue, which sees itself as continuing on foursquare Montefiore’s insistence on the best of modern scholarship, inclusiveness, intellectual honesty, and an overriding ethics-led view of what it means to be Jewish. LJS rabbis have also been notably prepared to criticise Israeli policy and some Israeli/Zionist attitudes, whenever they have felt them to be falling short of the particular ethical standards to be expected of Jew.

In recent years, also similar to North American Reform Judaism, there has also been a move towards more traditional elements in Liberal services than a generation earlier - i.e. more use of Hebrew, more wearing of tallit and kippot, more enjoyment of Purim and other traditional minor festivals. But Liberal Judaism is still distinctly more progressive than Reform. Examples would include more readily recognising as Jewish without conversion the child of a Jewish father and a non-Jewish mother, or in Liberal Judaism’s readiness to celebrate homosexual partnerships in synagogues with more of the traditional symbolism associated with Jewish weddings [21].

Origins

The Liberal movement in the UK was founded in the early part of the 20th century by Lily Montagu, Claude Montefiore and others. It began initially in 1902 with a supplementary prayer meeting, an adjunct to the then Orthodox and Reform synagogues, with the intention of using more English in services, men and women sitting freely together, the use of organ music, and a more inclusive form of worship which would prove attractive to members of British Jewry who felt uninvolved or out of sympathy with existing traditionalist patterns of worship.

Liberal movement steadily gained adherents after the founding in 1911 of the Liberal Jewish synagogue, the first of more than thirty Liberal congregations in the UK.

Organizations

The official organization representing UK Liberal Judaism is also called Liberal Judaism. It was founded as the Jewish Religious Union in 1902 and changed its name to Union of Liberal and Progressive Synagogues in 1944. Its current name was adopted in 2003 [16].

Reform Judaism in the United Kingdom is both historically earlier and more traditionalist than Liberal Judaism. Known until recently as «Reform Synagogues of Great Britain», it has 41 congregations and about 42,000 registered members. All of their synagogues are autonomous, which means that they are owned and financed by their members, who also hire their own local rabbi. All Rabbis for these congregations are members of the «Assembly of Rabbis», which publishes Reform siddurs and maintains a «Reform Beth Din», which is located at the Sternberg Centre in London. The Reform Beth Din’s decisions are recognised worldwide by Reform and Liberal movements as valid.

Reform Jews in the UK have a wide variety of traditions and practices, although most synagogues share some basic similarities, including these:

As described above, Reform Jews do not officially celebrate holy days two days in a row, although some families may choose to do so out of their own traditions.

To pronounce the prayers, the Sephardic pronunciation is generally used, and that is the pronunciation used in the Siddur.

Simchat Torah is celebrated on a different day than when the Orthodox observe it.

Men and women sit together in the synagogue, and a minyan includes women and men. It generally takes a shorter time to convert to Reform Judaism than to Orthodox Judaism, although the willingness of reform rabbis to accept converts varies.

The Reform movement has a tendency to be more socially liberal than many Orthodox congregations, with a more relaxed attitude being taken towards homosexuality and other controversial issues, as well as strongly encouraging interfaith dialogue.

British Reform is often said to correspond to American Conservative Judaism in beliefs and practices. Strictly speaking, however, the British equivalent of Conservatism is the Masorti movement (though that in turn is slightly more traditional than the American version). Unlike the Conservative/Masorti approach, which affirms the authority of Halakha (Jewish law) but interprets it liberally, British Reform affirms the primacy of individual autonomy, consistent with other denominations within Progressive Judaism, and gives the tradition «a vote but not a veto» [21].

History

In 1836, several members of the Synagogue of Bevis Marks in London requested the introduction of such alterations and modifications as were in the line of the changes introduced in the Reform synagogue in Hamburg and other places. The congregation conceded and took steps to insure greater decorum at the services. In 1839, they made a second request, advocating a diminution in the length and number of prayers, a more convenient hour of service on Sabbaths and holy days, sermons in English, a choir, and the abolition of the second days of the holy days. This request was ignored. The British reformers then requested permission to open a branch Synagogue in the West End, near their homes. The leadership of Bevis Marks refused on the ground of an askama (rule) of the congregation, forbidding within a radius of four miles of the synagogue the erection of any house of prayer or the holding of any service not of a domestic nature. These reformers however went ahead with their plans, in which they were joined by some Ashkenazi Jews, and established an independent congregation, the West London Synagogue of British Jews, on 15 April 1840. The new Synagogue’s leadership then took steps to make the reforms in the ritual which were refused by the leadership of Bevis Marks. The West London Synagogue reformers are the ancestors of the modern British reform movement, the Movement for Reform Judaism.

An Act of Parliament was passed in 1856, which empowered the minister of the West London Synagogue of British Jews to register marriage ceremonies. This act established the full autonomy of the congregation and ensured its equality before the law with the Orthodox congregations.

Reform Judaism in Britain is still progressive at its core, but is slightly more traditional in its values and practice. An example of this difference is that British Reform Judaism currently does not accept patrilineal descent to define who is a Jew, while Liberal Judaism does [13, p.113-115].

To sum up, there are two progressive movements of Judaism in Britain: Liberal and Reform. Liberal Judaism is less conservative than Reform and represents nearly 1percent of the Jewish community of Britain, while Reform Judaism is both historically earlier and more traditionalist than Liberal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conclusion

 

 

It should be concluded that the place of religion in society has become increasingly contentious in recent years. In the past few centuries, most stable societies have been underpinned by a single religion. Naturally there have been competing factions within the religion contained in a single society. Often, as in the case of different sects, there has been a division within society on religious grounds. However, the differences have been of what Christians often refer to as inter-denominational rather than a conflict of religion. Nevertheless, there have been indisputable conflicts, often politically based. These have been present in all the major religions of the world for several centuries. In addition, there has been a tradition of religious proselytizing between the religions over the centuries, although this usually manifested itself as the result of a clash of cultures and traditions. It also resulted from the expansion of populations or political spheres of influence.