Religion: Its Past and Present; Its Role in British Society

Christianity arrived in Britain in the first or second century (probably via the tin trade route through Ireland and Iberia), and existed independently of the Church of Rome, as did many other Christian communities of that era. Records note British bishops, such as Restitutes in attendance at the Council of Arles in 314, and, even more significantly, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who nearly defeated Augustine of Hippo‘s doctrine of original sin. The Pope sent Saint Augustine from Rome in the 6th century to evangelize the Angles in 597. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent he established his church in Canterbury, the former capital of Kent (it is now Maidstone), and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organization of English Christianity.

The English Church was under papal authority for nearly a thousand years, before separating from Rome in 1534 during the reign of King Henry VIII. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church such as the Lollards, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Under pressure from Catherine’s nephew, the Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Pope Clement VII refused the annulment, and, eventually, Henry, although theologically a doctrinal Catholic, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III. Henry maintained a strong preference for the traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry’s reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics.

Under his son, Edward VI, however, the Church became theologically more radical, before legislatively rejoining the Roman church during the reign of Queen Mary I, in 1555. The settlement under Elizabeth I (from 1558) of a mildly reformed, Catholic, apostolic, and established church (i.e., subject to and part of the state) led to great civil strife in the following century.

For the next century, through the reigns of James I and Charles I, and culminating in the English Civil War and the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far-reaching Protestant reforms, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By continental standards, the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included a king, Charles I, and an Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud. Under the Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 to 1660, Anglicanism was disestablished and outlawed, and in its place, Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate. In addition, the Articles were replaced with the Westminster Confession, and the Book of Common Prayer was replaced by the Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism.

With the Restoration of Charles II, Anglicanism too was restored in a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organization, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican Established church occupying the middle ground, and Roman Catholics and those Puritans who dissented from the Anglican Establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the National Church rather than controlling it. Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the nineteenth century [8, p.289-291].

Structure

The British monarch, at present Queen Elizabeth II, has the constitutional title of “Supreme Governor of the Church of England”. The Canons of the Church of England state, “We acknowledge that the Queen’s most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil.” The Church is then structured as follows:

• Primacy, i.e., Church of England. This is the area under the jurisdiction of a primate, i.e., the Archbishop of Canterbury. A primacy may consist of one or several provinces.
• Province, i.e., York and Canterbury (these are the only two in the Church of England). This is the area under the jurisdiction of an archbishop, i.e. the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. Decision making within the province is the responsibility of the General Synod (see also above). A province is subdivided into many dioceses.
• Diocese, e.g., Durham, Guildford, St Albans, more. This is the area under the jurisdiction of a diocesan bishop, e.g., the Bishops of Durham, Guildford and St Albans, and will have a cathedral. There may also be a small number of assisting bishops, some with the status of Suffragan Bishops, within the diocese who assist the diocesan bishop in his ministry, e.g., in Guildford Diocese, the Bishop of Dorking. The bishops will work with an elected body of lay and ordained representatives, known as the Diocesan Synod, to run the diocese. A diocese is subdivided into a small number of archdeaconries.
• Archdeaconry, e.g., Dorking. This is the area under the jurisdiction of an archdeacon. It will consist of a number of deaneries.
• Deanery, e.g., Lewisham, Runnymede. This is the area for which a rural dean is responsible. It will consist of a number of parishes in a particular region. The rural dean will usually be the incumbent of one of the constituent parishes. The parishes each elect lay (that is non-ordained) representatives to the Deanery Synod. Deanery Synod members each have a vote in the election of representatives to the Diocesan Synod.
• Parish, this is the most local level, often consisting of one church building and community, although nowadays many parishes are joining forces in a variety of ways for financial reasons. The parish will be looked after by either a Vicar, Rector, Priest-in-Charge, Team Rector or Team Vicar, who may also be known as the Incumbent. The running of the parish church is the joint responsibility of the incumbent and the Parochial Church Council (PCC), which consists of the parish clergy and elected representatives from the congregation.

All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or even appointed directly by the crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience «in all things lawful and honest» to the bishop. Usually the archdeacon inducts into the actual possession of the benefice property - church and parsonage. Curates are appointed by rectors and vicars, but if priests-in-charge then by the bishop after consultations with the patron. Cathedral clergy are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy, or are licensed by the bishop when appointed (e.g. curates), or simply with permission.

Primates

The most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the archbishop and primate of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He also has the status of Primate of All England and Metropolitan. He is also the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches. The Most Reverend and Right Honourable Dr Rowan Williams has served as Archbishop of Canterbury since 2002.

The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the archbishop and primate of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons he is referred to as the Primate of England. The Most Reverend and Right Honourable Dr John Sentamu has served as the Archbishop of York since 2005.

Representative bodies

The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. Synod can create two types of legislation, Measures and Canons. Measures of Synod have to be approved but cannot be amended by the UK Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the Church, rather than the law of the land [15].

Doctrine and practice

In both beliefs and practices, or forms of churchmanship, the Church of England is mixed: in some of its congregations worship remains closer to Roman Catholicism (see high church) than most Protestant churches, but in others it is difficult to distinguish between the Anglican forms in use and the uses of other Evangelical bodies (see low church). Its constitution affirms many relatively conservative theological beliefs, its liturgical form of worship is traditional, and its organization embodies a belief in the appropriateness of the historical Episcopal hierarchy of archbishops, bishops, and dioceses.

In many people’s eyes, the Church of England has as its primary distinguishing heritage its breadth and “open-mindedness”. Today, beliefs and practices range from those of the Anglo-Catholics, who emphasize liturgy and sacraments, to the far more preaching-centered and less ritual based services of Evangelicals. But this «broad church« faces various contentious doctrinal questions raised by the development of modern society, such as conflicts over the ordination of women as priests (accepted in 1992 and begun in 1994), and the status of non-celibate homosexual clergy (still unsettled today). In July 2005 the divisions were once again apparent, as the General Synod voted to «set in train» the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops; in February 2006 the Synod voted overwhelmingly for “further exploration” of a scheme that would also allow parishes that did not want a woman bishop to opt for a man instead.

The church also has its own system of canon law, and judicial branch, known as the Ecclesiastical courts, which likewise form a part of the UK court system. Such courts have powers especially in relation to the care of churches and churchyards and the discipline of the clergy [4, p. 215].

So, the Church of England is the officially established Christian Church in England which was under papal authority for nearly a thousand years before separating from Rome in 1534. It has its own structure, representative bodies and legislative body, the General Synod. Beliefs and practices o the Church range from those of the Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals.

 

 

2.2 The Church of Scotland

 

The Church of Scotland is a mainstream Protestant Christian church, but like all churches it has developed its own authentic and individual character.

The history of Christianity in Scotland goes back to 400 CE, although the institution itself did not become the established Church of Scotland until 1560, following the Reformation, and the work of John Knox and others.

Despite schisms that led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland, loyalty to the Church has remained strong.

In 2000 Church membership was estimated at 607,714. This figure only represents those officially listed as members. The number of people who consider themselves part of the Church in a more informal way is significantly higher [15].

History

The history of Christianity in Scotland goes back to Saint Ninian in 400 CE. He is said to have led a mission to Scotland which resulted in many conversions.

In the 5th Century another influential figure, Saint Columba, arrived on the Scottish island of Iona where he established a monastic community. This worked to spread the Christian gospel in both Scotland and Northern England.In the 7th Century, the Celtic branch of the church gave way to the more widespread Roman tradition, and the church in Scotland became more unified.The mediaeval church in Scotland was highly influential and its clergy held great secular power. Education was run by the church, and by the time of the Reformation the Church owned half of Scotland.

Political disputes, corruption within the church and new religious ideas from the continent led to discontent with the church. Some church leaders shared this discontent and tried to take action, but were not able to bring about change.

The church was determined to maintain its power, and people who would not conform were sometimes killed. One of those was the scholar George Wishart, a scholar who was condemned for teaching New Testament Greek, preaching Protestant Christianity and denouncing the practices of Rome. Wishart influenced the thinking of many Scots, among them John Knox, the pivotal figure of the Scottish Reformation.

The Reformation

Throughout the 16th Century the Reformation was taking effect in Western Europe. It came to Scotland in 1560, where it soon gathered momentum.

John Knox was a fierce campaigner for Protestant principles. He was famous for arguing with Mary Queen of Scots, a devout Catholic, over Roman beliefs and practices that he believed were idolatrous. Knox and his colleagues wrote an important declaration of faith, known as The Scots Confession. The document was accepted by the Scottish Parliament in 1560.

Attempts were made to impose the same Episcopal form of church government that was used in England on the Church of Scotland during the reigns of both Charles I and Charles II, but these were successfully resisted.

In 1690, under William of Orange who had supported and promoted the Reformation on the continent of Europe, Presbyterianism was recognized as the official form of government in the Scottish Church [8, p. 290-291].

Subgroups/schisms

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the Church suffered major internal disruption and schism which led to the formation of new Scottish churches.

In 1732, some who objected to ministers being appointed by patrons rather than by congregations broke away to form the Original Secession Church. This ultimately became a four-way split as members disagreed over such matters as the taking of oaths and whether secular magistrates could have any say in the affairs of the church.

In 1761 further disputes about patronage led to the formation of the Relief Church. In 1847 these two groups came together to form the United Presbyterian Church.

Free Church of Scotland

The Free Church of Scotland was an evangelical Presbyterian Church which was formed in 1843, when approximately one third of the Church of Scotland’s congregations broke away. The disagreement that resulted in this schism centered round the appointment of ministers. Many felt that because the Church of Scotland was an ‘established’ church, political and legislative interference could take place. This showed itself for example in the appointment of ministers where the rights of a congregation to choose a minister could be over-ridden by the patron of the parish.

Today’s Free Church of Scotland is a continuation of this denomination after a major union in 1900, taking a more conservative position. It is found mainly in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland.

The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland

This denomination split from the Free Church in 1893 because of changing attitudes to the Westminster Confession of Faith.

The Westminster Confession had been adopted in 1647 by the Churches of Scotland and England together as a ‘subordinate standard’, helping to interpret Holy Scripture. It enshrined Puritan beliefs of the time and not all felt they could affirm it completely. The 1893 Assembly was being asked to make allowance for ‘diversity of opinion’. The denomination is most active in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland.

The Westminster Confession remains the ‘subordinate standard’ of the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, together with the allowance for ‘liberty of opinion’ where a belief is not any more seen as agreeing with the Bible.

The United Free Church of Scotland

The United Free Church of Scotland was formed in 1900, when members of the Free Church of Scotland amalgamated with the United Presbyterian Church.

Today’s United Free Church is a continuation of the former denomination when the majority of its members united with the Church of Scotland in 1929. It is Presbyterian and evangelical.

The United Free Church remains opposed to the idea of an established church. They believe this promotes inequality between churches and damages inter-church relationships. Although ‘established’, the Church of Scotland today emphasizes the place of other churches in Scotland and seeks to co-operate with them.

Structure

The Church of Scotland is Presbyterian in its structure, governed by a system of local, regional and national ‘courts’ or councils.

‘Presbyterian’ government refers to the sharing of authority in the church by an equal number of ‘elders’ (elected from the membership of the church) and ministers. Both are ordained for their special tasks.

The local council is the Kirk Session, consisting of elders and the minister.

The regional council is the Presbytery, which looks after all the churches in the area.

The national council is known as the General Assembly and convenes each year in Edinburgh. This meeting establishes the laws which govern the church and the priorities for the coming year.

The Assembly represents all presbyteries. In between meetings its work is carried out by several councils covering such areas as mission, education, social services, worship, doctrine and finance.

The most public position in the Church of Scotland is that of Moderator who chairs the General Assembly. It is an honorary (which means unpaid) and elected role held for a year.

The Moderator makes local and international visits during the ensuing year, encouraging the church and representing the church to wider society.

Beliefs

The Church of Scotland is one of the Reformation churches. It believes that this means that it must continue to reform as new insights are gained about the church and how it can meet the needs of the times.

The main beliefs of the Church of Scotland are found within the Bible, in the New and Old Testaments together. Like all mainstream churches, it accepts the doctrine of the Holy Trinity; that God is experienced as Father, Son (in Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit.

It sees Jesus Christ as the only head of the church and teaches that the church is his «body». The Church of Scotland believes that God demonstrated his love for humanity through his son Jesus Christ and offers to reconcile people to each other and to God.

The Church believes God wants the world to be a just place where people show concern for others and treat each other with equality and respect.

The Church believes God exists alongside people in a spiritual form. The Holy Spirit provides strength, security and peace, yet also challenges pride, hostility, dishonesty and other faults.

The Church believes that the Holy Spirit is present in today’s world, challenging human pride and aggression which cause conflict, and offering strength, security and peace to those who become followers of Jesus Christ [20].

 

So, the Church of Scotland is a mainstream Protestant Christian church, but it has developed its own authentic and individual character. It’s Presbyterian in its structure and is one of the Reformation Churches according its believes. In the 18th or 19th centuries the Church has suffered disruption which led to the formation of new Scottish churches.

 

 

2.3 The Church of Ireland

 

The Church of Ireland is an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion, operating seamlessly across the border between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Like other Anglican churches, it considers itself to be both Catholic and Reformed.

When the Church in England broke with the Pope and communion with the Roman Catholic Church, the Church in Ireland likewise underwent reformation, with those adhering to the new rules becoming the State Church and holding possession of official Church property, even as doctrine was changed, while the majority of the population remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church and continue to do so to this day. As the reformed Church of Ireland took possession of practically all official Church property, it retained and retains a great repository of religious architecture and other items.

Despite its numerical minority, however, the Church of Ireland remained the official state church until it was disestablished on 1 January 1871, by the Liberal government under William Gladstone.

Today the Church of Ireland is, after the Roman Catholic Church, the second-largest church in the island of Ireland. It is governed by a General Synod of clergy and laity and organized into twelve dioceses. It is led by the Archbishop of Armagh (styled «Primate of All Ireland«), at present the Most Reverend Dr Alan Harper; the church’s other archbishop is the Most Reverend Dr Archbishop of Dublin John Neill [8, p.290]

History

The Church of Ireland traces its origins back to the missions of Saint Patrick. As a monastically-centered institution, the early Celtic Church of Ireland had a unique calendar and usages, but was a full part of the wider Western Church, but with links to the Coptic and Syriac churches.

In 1166, basing his action on the Papal Bull Laudabiliter, which was claimed to give him lordship over Ireland, Henry II of England came to Ireland and in 1171 made himself «Overlord» of Ireland.

In 1536, during the Reformation, Henry VIII had the Irish Parliament declare him head of the Irish Church. When the Church of England was reformed under Edward VI so too did the Church of Ireland. All but two of the Irish bishops accepted the Elizabethan Settlement and there is continuity and Apostolic succession in the Church of Ireland, separate from that of the Church of England and the doubts raised by the consecration of Matthew Parker as archbishop of Canterbury.

The established church in Ireland underwent a period of more radical Calvinist doctrine than occurred in England. James Usher (later Archbishop of Armagh) authored the Irish Articles, adopted in 1615. In 1634 the Irish Convocation adopted the English Thirty-Nine Articles alongside the Irish Articles. After the Restoration of 1660, it seems that the Thirty-Nine Articles took precedence, and remain the official doctrine of the Church of Ireland even after disestablishment.

The Church of Ireland undertook the first publication of Scripture in Irish. The first Irish translation of the New Testament was begun by Nicholas Walsh, Bishop of Ossory, who worked on it until his untimely death in 1585. The work was continued by John Kearny, his assistant, and Dr. Nehemiah Donellan, Archbishop of Tuam, and it was finally completed by William O’Domhnuill (William Daniell, Archbishop of Tuam in succession to Donellan). Their work was printed in 1602. The work of translating the Old Testament was undertaken by William Bedell (1571-1642), Bishop of Kilmore, who completed his translation within the reign of Charles I, although it was not published until 1680 (in a revised version by Narcissus Marsh (1638-1713), Archbishop of Dublin). William Bedell had undertaken a translation of the Book of Common Prayer in 1606. An Irish translation of the revised prayer book of 1662 was effected by John Richardson (1664 - 1747) and published in 1712.

The English-speaking minority mostly adhered to the Church of Ireland or to Presbyterianism and the Irish-speaking majority remained faithful to the Latin liturgy of Roman Catholicism, which remained the majority denomination in Ireland.

As before the Reformation, some clergymen of the Church of Ireland sat as Lords Spiritual in the Irish House of Lords; under the provisions of the Act of Union 1800, one archbishop and three bishops chosen by rotation would be Lords Spiritual in the newly united United Kingdom House of Lords in Westminster, joining the two archbishops (Canterbury and York) and the twenty-four bishops from the Church of England.