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1.Morphology and syntax as parts of gr. Main units and types of relations between gr. units in language and speech
2.Main gr notions.gr mng and gr.form. Gr categories. Method of opposition.
3. Structure of words. Types of morphemes
1.Morphology and syntax as parts of gr. Main units and types of relations between gr. units in language and speech
Units of gr: morpheme, word, w group, sentence, suprapharsel unities. Every unit stays in relations with other units of the same level. Synt-linear rel, in speech. Paradigm- rel outside the lines, in lang.
Funct word- a unit of lang both gr & lexical, sem & struct unity, ready-made u, naming u=> nominative func. Sentence u of lang & u of speech, not a ready-made u, naming & communicative u => nominative& communicative func.
Grammar is devided into:-morphology -syntax
Morphology studies paradigmatic rel of ws (structure, forms, classific of ws) Syntax studies syntagmatic rel of ws & paradmatic& synt rel of sent(structure, forms, classific of sents)
Paradigmatic syntax-diff forms of sents(- ? !) Syntagmatic morphology –linear connection of ws
The basic units are:morphemes and words.
A paradigm-is a set of unit related to each other by association with some distinctive features.:
teachers learns writes speaks
grammeme-is a paradigme based on the sameness of grammar forms. Lexeme
2.Main gr notions.gr mng and gr.form. Gr categories. Method of opposition.
Gr mng.- plane of content. It is general, abstract, indirect(connected with objective reality through the lexical mng), obligatory, relative(it is revealed in relations of w forms: speak-speaks)
Gr form- plane of expression- wide sence: all means of expressing gr mngs.; narrow s- denote means of exp a particular gr mng.
In En no direct correspondence btw gr mng & gr form=> 1.2 or more units of th e plane of
expression mau correspond to 1 unit of plane of content(allomorphs)-boys-
A gr category - is a generalized gram mg revealed through formal & meaningful opposition of variants of 1 & same unit.
The features of gram category: 1.is represented by 2 gramm form( at least) 2.one word can represent diff gram categories: boy’s (number and case) 3.one word form can express only one gram mg of the same category 4.one particular gram mg can not be expressed in all forms of the word
asked- past tense, non-cont aspect, non-perfect order, active voice.
Gr categories are revealed on the basis on the method of oppositions. Types of opp: 1) acc to the number of members( binary, ternary, quaternary) 2)-//- quality: privative (strong memb(special marker)<-> weak- dog-dogs); equipollent-both membs strong & marked(am-is); gradual- degrees of comparison.
Oppositional reduction: 1.neutralisation- the weak memb acquires the mng of the strong one(Tonight we start for London) 2)Transposition-the strong memb is used in the context typical for the weak memb(She is always complaining of smth)
3. Structure of words. Types of morphemes.
The main task of morphology is the study of the structure of ws. The smallest meaningful unit of gr-morpheme. Free m-can occur as separate ws <-> bound. Monomorphemic <-> polymorphemic w.
Morph: lexical(roots), lexico-gramm(w-build affixes) & gr(form-building aff).
Positional variants of morpheme- allomorphs( cats, dogs, foses, oxen.)
3types of morphemic distribution: contrastive(position same< mng –diff: charming-charmed), non-contrastive (position&mng-same: learned-learnt), complementary( posit-diff, mng-same: asks-theaches)
Zero morpheme-mengful absence of m(book-books)
Semi-bound m-word m(funct of the m performed by a separate w : will work)
Means of form- b & gram f are divided: 1)synthetical (bound m: inflextions, sound interchange, suppletivity) 2)analytical 1.2 parts(w-operator& notional p) 2.anal f develop gr idiomaticity – is writing 3. within a cat anal f should be opposed to synth ones(is writing-writes) 4. funct as 1 memb in the sent 5. aux are lexically empty 5. lex mng is understood from the npotional part 6. aux change grammatically.
4. Means of form-building. Synthetic and analytical forms.
Means of form- b & gram f are divided: 1)synthetical (bound m: inflextions, sound interchange (sell-sold), suppletivity)
2)analytical (with the help of semi-bound m) 1.2 parts(w-operator& notional p) 2.anal f develop gr idiomaticity(the mng of the whole differs from the mng of its parts) – is writing 3. within a cat anal f should be opposed to synth ones(is writing-writes) 4. funct as 1 memb in the sent 5. aux are lexically empty 6 lex mng is understood from the notional part 7. aux change grammatically
is more difficult an analytical comparative degree or is more difficult a free phrase?
an analytical form: 1) The actual meaning of formations like more difficult, (the) most difficult does not differ from that of the degrees of compar larger, (the) largest. 2) Qualitative adjectives, like difficult, express properties which may be present in different degrees, and therefore they are bound to have degrees of comparison.
a free phrase: 1) The words more and most have the same meaning in these phrases as in other phrases in which they may appear, e.g. more time, most people, etc. 2) there are also the phrases less difficult, (the) least difficult, and there seems to be no sufficient reason for treating the two sets of phrases in different ways, saying that more difficult is an analytical form, while less difficult is not. Besides, the very fact that more and less, (the) most and (the) least can equally well combine with difficult, would seem to show that they are free phrases and none of them is an analytical form
5. Parts of speech. Principles of classification
A part of speech-grammatically relevant class of ws which is specified on the basis of gr, semantic & lexical properties.
Criteria for grouping into
classes:1)Semantic(mng)-genera
2)Formal(morphological)-inflec
3)Functional(syntactic). Synt properties are: distribution(set of all possible environments of a w=> combinability: adj with N) Typical syntactic func(N-subj, obj)
POS-as a field: central elements & marginal(substantivized adj)
1-criterion classifications:
1)Morphological(Sweet):in(
2)Syntactico-distributional(
6. Notional and functional classes of words
All the words of the English language are grouped into different types of classes. This classification is based on three main principles: 1) their grammatical meaning; 2) their form and 3) their syntactical characteristics.
Criteria for differentiating N & F ws: 1)the prominence of their lexical mng 2) peculiarities of their combinability 3) ability to be substituted by a w of a more general mng 4)ability to add(create new items)
N ws:1)complete nominative mng 2) self-dependent fnc, can be used in isolation 3)subst by a w with more general mng 4)open class.
F ws: 1)incomplete nominative fnc 2)obligatory combinability, linking/ specifying fnc 3)cannot be -//- 4)closed class
F ws(Fries): 1.with unilateral combinability(art, aux, modals, particles) 2.with bilateral comb(prep, conj which connect 2 or more not ws) 3. heterogeneous(interrogative ws, it/there)
7. The noun. The category of number.
I)Sem cr-substance & thinghs, human beings, animals
II)Morph:a)inflectional(the cat of number, case, gender, article determination) b)derivational (suffixation, compounding, conversion)
III)Func: a) left-hand prep combinability with N, adj, v, adv, casal comb( N’s +N), contact comb(N+N)-stone wall constr(speech sound), comb with art & other determiners b)syntactic: subj, obj, other funct less typical.
Ns denoting things- nucleus of the fild, marginal-process, quality, abstract notions.
Classification : common/ proper; in/animate, un/countable, concrete/abstract
Category of NUMBER. Tree ( weak form ) vs trees ( marked form)
The grammatical category of number( in all languages) depends on the physical nature of the object. The object can be: Discrete vs indiscrete
Discrete ( it has no plural number; it consists of the number of homogeneous separated by visible bounds)Nouns: à discrete ( can be count( sg and pl) and uncount.(always pl “police”) à indiscrete ( are always sg,uncount)
Plural form of the noun can be lexicalized,it develops a new lexical meaning Ex: colour<-> colours- flag à lexicalization
8. The noun. The category of case.
Classification : common/ proper; in/animate, un/countable, concrete/abstract
The category of case.Case is a gr category which shows rel of nouns towards other words in a sentence.Ex: boy ( no visible mark) vs boy’s ( reflects the syntactic function) Not every noun changes according to the case. Gen. case in En can denote the following semantic relation: -possession (general): student’s book --subjective genitive: the student’s answer -objective genetive: Napoleon’s defeatness -genitive of origin: sh’s plays --descriptive genetive: a girl’s school –genetive of measure(ten day’s journey)--social relation: Jack’s wife --part of a whole: dog’s tail
Sometimes a noun in genitive case can be used independently.it has a locative meaning. It is the case of lexicalization.: I’m going to the bacher’s( a shop).
theory of positional cases(nesfield) of the functional positions occupied by the N in the
sentence. besides the inflexional genitive case, purely positional cases: nominative, vocative, dative, and accusative(the cat caught a rat).
theory of prepositional cases (curm)combinations of N with prep in certain object and attributive collocations should be understood as morphological case forms: "dative" case (to+Noun, for+Noun) and the "genitive" case (of+Noun).
limited case theory (Sweet, O. Jespersen) : the possessive or genitive form as the strong member of the categorial opposition and the common, or "non-genitive
Post-positional case theory(Воронцова)s’-special type of postposition
9. The noun. The category of article determination.
The category of article determination Art determination- binary opposition which contrasts the N with the def art against the N with ind/zero art. Zero article- meaningful absence of the article ( is equivalent for indef. Article for uncount nouns).
Peculiarities: 1)spelt separately, 2)can be separated from N by other ws, 3)its position can be occupied by demonstr/ possessive pronoun 4)does not change grammatically as I French 5)Art has its own meaning. Ind art – oneness, classification. Def art- definiteness, specification.
Art help to structure inf(theme-def art rheme-ind art)
10.The adjective. The category of degree of comparison
The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance (either permanent or temporary). It presupposes relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes (material, colour, dimension, position, state, etc.). Form: invariable, but some form degrees of comparison( for qualitative adj.).
Derivational features: suff and pref: -ful, -less, -ish, -un, -un, -
Combinability: nouns both preceding and occasionally following them; with link-verbs (functional and notional); with modifying adverbs (very large)
Function: either an attribute or a predicative , an objective predicative (painted the door green).
two large subclasses: qualitative and relative
There are three degrees of comparison: positive (or absolute), comparative and superlative.
an analytical form: 1) The actual mng of formations like more difficult, (the) most difficult does not differ from that of the degrees of compar larger, (the) largest. 2) Qualitative adj, like diff, express properties which may be present in diff degrees, and therefore they are bound to have degrees of comparison.
a free phrase: 1) The words more and most have the same mng in these phrases as in other phrases in which they may appear, e.g. more time, most people, etc. 2) there are also the phrases less difficult, (the) least difficult, and there seems to be no sufficient reason for treating the two sets of phrases in diff ways, saying that more difficult is an analytical form, while less difficult is not. Besides, the very fact that more and less, (the) most and (the) least can equally well combine with difficult, would seem to show that they are free phrases and none of them is an analytical form
There are 3 ways of forming the comparative and the superlative degrees: synthetic, analytical and suppletive. Synthetic: suffix –er to the comparative degree and the suffix -est to the superl degr.
Analytical: comp word more, the superlative ― most:
Suppletive (Irregular):good ― better ― best
be substantivized -become nouns by conversion (zero-derivation) => adjs acquire some morphological charact of N: sg or pl,used with or without an art & other determiners
Adjectivization of nouns -N becoming adj. A N may stand before another N & modify it: stone wall, speech sound.
11. The verb. The category of tense.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
The gr category denoting time is called tense.it reflects the objective category of time and expresses the relation between the time of the action and the time of the utterance.
time denoted absolutely(with regard to the moment of speaking) & relatively(-// to a certain moment) In most langs:future,past,present tense.(Russian).
Future tense. It’s analytical form ( will do). This form developed from the modal form and doesn’t cover modal verbs and it’s homonemous with modal verbs . ( will \shall). According English scolars, it is not analytical form, it’s modal verb. I will have to go back to the hotel.
Time in English expressed by 3 categories : -absolute category of tense (present\past) -relative category of posteriority ,which denotes absolute post(will come) & relative (would come) -the category order( denotes prior action is marked by perfect form have\has\had) –the cat of aspect
12. The category of order \ correlation.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
In English there’re special forms for expressing relative priority-perfect forms→express 1)time(actions preceding a certain moment);2)the way the action is shown to proceed(the connection of the action with the indicated moment in its results or consequences).So the mng of the perfect forms is constituted by 2 semantic components:temporal(priority) & aspective (result,current relevance)=>perf forms have been treated as tense-forms or aspect-forms.
oppositions: comes-has come, is coming-has been coming. These oppositions reveal the cat of order(correlation, retrospect, taxis). Tense &order are closely connected but they’re different categories, revealed through different oppositions: comes-came, comes-has come.
The fact that verbals have the category of order(to come-to have come, coming-having come)& have no category of tense also shows the difference of these categories. The mng of perfect forms may be influenced by the lexical mng of the verb(limitive/unlimitive), tense-form, context & other factors.
13. The category of aspect.( vid)
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
Aspect denote the manner or way in which the action is experienced or regarded: as a mere fact or as taken in progress. Aspect is a major category denoting the character of the action. ( continuous\ not contin. common/cont) tense& aspect- diff cat revealed in diff oppositions( comes-came; comes- is coming). Inf has the cat of aspect.
Aspect denotes the manner,but not the time. the category of aspect is very closely connected with the lexical meaning of the verb. Dynamic <->stative (perception, cognition: know, like, see)Durative=> Terminatice(limitive) V -action implying a certain limit(close, break) Durative(unlimitive) don’t imply any such limit(walk, read)
14.The Category of voice.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
The verbal category of voice shows the direction of an action as viewed by the speaker. .Act V-action issuing from the Subj. Pass V- action directed towards its object. In pass constr the gr subj is the object of the act.
absence of direct correspondence btw meaning & form =>problem of number of voices. Middle voice.mng passive, form active; no opposition in form=> no gr category. The door opened It differs from the act v in meaning and syntactical construction. Reflexive voice: He hurt himself. Meaning – the action is concentrated on one and the same person. Form – verb + reflexive pronoun. But reflexive pronouns can be omitted and the meaning of reflexivity remains: He shaved and dressed. Prof. Ilyish: He hurt himself and the child. Besides: He makes toys – He makes mistakes. And 15. The caegory of mood.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
Cat of M denotes modality(relation of the contents of the utt to reality as viewed by the speaker).Means of expr modality: phonetic, lexical(mod v), grammatical(mood).
imperative: let us let him do it. but! don’t let us...
Diversiry of moods. causes: 1) cat of mood is in state of development. 2) homonymy of forms(diff to distinguish aux & mod v ; from indicative: do-ind, subj, imper)
Principle for distinguishing forms: meaning, form, mng&form.( Ilyish 3 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)- meaning; Prof. Smirnitsky: 6 MOODS (indicative, imperative, subjunctive I, subjunctive II, suppositional, conditional) - form и meaning; L.S.Barhudarov, D.A. Shteling: 2 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive)
Subj I(he be) Supp(he should be)- problematic act, SubjII(he were), Cond(should/would be)- unreal act.
Subj have cat of aspect, order, voice, prospect, person.
not always reflexive pronouns can be omitted: He found himself in a dark room. pronoun is not lex empty(cat of gender)+ add elements Reciprocal voice: They met each other at the station. Meaning – mutuality of the action. The subject is often plural. Form – verb + reciprocal pronoun. But They met at the station.
The cup was broken-Бахударов-pv, compound nominal predicate(смирницкий). 100%Pass V when:1)doer of the act 2)modifying adverbials 3)marked forms of the V( Has been made) 4)madal verbs(can be broken) 5)corresponding act const.
get and become (He got wounded in the war. He became surprised). - the verbs get and become retain to some extent their lexical meaning; - though P is a dependent form
Passive constructions: -Direct P (The letter was written yesterday) -Indirect P (I was given a book) -Prepositional P (The doctor was sent for) -Phraseological P(Care should be taken not to confuse these words) -Adverbial P (The house has not been lived in for many years)
16.Verbals. The category of representation.
Inf- properties of the V & N . name the prosses.cat of asp, order, voice. Comb:with finite forms, non-processual parts of sp. Func: subj, obj, adv mod, att. The main theoretical problems are the lexico-grammatical status of the particle ‘to’ & whether the to-inf & the bare inf constitute 1 form of the V
The Gerund is a non-finite form of the V which like the inf combines the properties of the V with those of the N & primarily serves as a verbal name of the process. It’s characterized by the categories of order (asking – having asked) & voice (being asked). The theoretical problem – half G –categorial neutralization(his yawing – him yawing)– is related to ing-form in general.
The Pr Part (P I) is a non-finite form of the V, combines the properties of a V with an adj\adv. It serves as a qualifying prossesual name. plane of expression is homogeneous with the G ending –ing & distinguishing the same grammatical category of order, voice. It may combine with a N, proN as direct, indirect, prepositional Obj, adverb or a prep phr as an adv modifier, or with a N or adjective as a predicative. G & PI: posess diff categorical, funct, sem properties
The Past Participle (PII) - a non-finite form of the V which combines the properties of the
V with those of the adj. it serves as a qualifying processual name.
The PII ia a single form, havinf no paradigm of its own. order&voice
written(both)-loved(pass)-
The cat of representation (Finitute). the 2 subparadigms are opposed both morphologically & synthetically. All finite forms (s) ÷all non-finite forms (w). The differential feature is constituted by the expression of verbal time & mood. The members of the opp are contrasted as predicative & non-predicative. Predicative are marked morphologically through the forms of tense, mood, person & number (so they are strong members) This form represents purely verbal representation. Non-predicative forms are unmarked. They demonstrate 2 types of verbal Predicativity: substantive representation (inf & G) & adjectival representation (PI &PII). Non-finite forms are language specific.
The question arises whether verbals should be included in the class of verb? Whether they should be considered as a separate part of speech? They should be included: 1.every stem takes finite and non-finite forms of the verb; 2. Criteria Principle: a. processual meaning; b. they have some of the v gr cat : voice, order, aspect; c. many of the w-building means are used in the non-finite forms; d. the syntactic functions are different e. the combinability is similar. Non-finite forms do not belong to the class of verbs, but they form a subclass of its own, because they have some specific features. The differences able to speak about the category of finitude which is built on the opposition of finite/non-finite forms.