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1.Morphology and syntax as parts of gr. Main units and types of relations between gr. units in language and speech
2.Main gr notions.gr mng and gr.form. Gr categories. Method of opposition.
3. Structure of words. Types of morphemes
17. Phrase. Principles of classification.
18. Phrase , Types of relations between its constituents.
equal-coordination. not equal-subordination(government (the use of certain form of subordinate word required by its head word but not coinciding with the form of the head word. Only case in ENG – personal pronouns // invite him), agreement, apposition)
Interdependence- a reciprocal dominational relation within the N+V group.
Means of expressing synt rel: word order, prepositions, conj, case inflection-‘s , morphol expression of the components.
agreement – method of expressing a synthectical relationship which consist in making the subordinate word take a similar form of the head word // this book, those books as to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun and pronoun denoting the subject of the action // a child plays, children play – usually treated on the sentence level
adjoinment( primikanie) – the connection between these words is preserved owning to the grammatical and semantic compatibility of the adv. Only verb + adv
enclosure (zamikanie)– some element of a phrase is enclosed between 2 parts of another element
connection- (typically English) by meand of formal words : cold but clear ( with the preposition)
19. Sentence as the main unit of syntax.
Sent-immediate integral unit of speech built according to a def synt pattern & distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. largest unit of lang, smallest unit of speech.
The most essential feat of the sent as a linguistic unit are a) its structural characteristics – subject-predicate relations (primary predication) b) its semantic characteristics – it refers to some fact in the objective reality.
2 func: naming, communicat.
3 main aspects of sent: synt(pre-func- ws/w gr; func-parts of sentence), sematic(reflection of a certain sit, prosses, doer, obj, circum, condit), logico-communicative(2 parts the topic, the inform).
20. Predicativity. Primary and secondary predication.
Compare the following structures: (1)The doctor’s arrival; (2)The doctor arrived=>they name the same event, but (1)is not correlated with the situation of speech,doesn’t convey information about the reality or the time of the event; (2)is correlated with the situation of speech & shows that the event took place in the past.
The correlation of the thought expressed in the sentence with the situation of speech is called predicativity→has 3 components: modality, time, person expressed by the categories of mood, tense & person. The predicativity is expressed by the subject-predicate group(predication) & is also expressed by intonation.
primary & secondary predication: I heard someone singing. ‘Someone singing’-the secondary predication,as it resembles the subject-predicate group,or the primary predication, structurally & semantically: it consists of 2 main components (nominal&verbal) & names the event or situation. But it cannot be correlated with reality directly as verbals have no categ. of mood, tense, person. The secondary predication is related to the situation of speech indirectly, through the primary predicationsand it cannot constitute an independent unit of communication.
Sent-immediate integral unit of speech built according to a def synt pattern & distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. Based on 2 principles: 1)Communicative (declarative, interrogat, imperative, exclametary) 2)Structural 1.number of predication lines(1 → simple S, 2 or more → composite S), 2.the completeness of the predication line(only 2-member S can be discussed here: complete & incomplete (elliptical)), 3.the ways of its expression(1-member(nominal, adjective, adverbial, verbal) & 2-member S.), 4.in case of multiple predication – all the types of relations between the clauses( 1.equal -> coordination -> compound S (parataxis) 2.unequal -> subordination -> complex S (hypotaxis).
Incomplete (elliptical) 2-member S is built on the model of a 2-member S in which 1 or both principal parts are missing (in conversations, newspaper headlines, ads, stage directions).
One-member Ss are those the predication line of which comprises only 1 principal part which can’t be identified as a subject or a predicate. they are not context-dependent. Mainly used to describe emotions, subjective perception of reality.
22. Compound sentence. Semantic relations between the clauses.parataxis
The compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Coordinate cls may be linked syndetically, asyndetically.Sem relations: 1.Copulative coordination implies that two events or ideas conveyed by coordinate clauses are merely joined in time and place.(and, nor, neither ... nor, not only ...then, besides, again
2. Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction
or contrast. (the conj but, while, whereas, the conj adv yet, still, nevertheless the conjunctive particle only).
3. Disjunctive connection denotes choice, usually between two mutually exclusive alternatives. (or, either ... or, the conj adv else, otherwise):
4. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other ― a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by theprevious clause. (for.The days became longer, for it was now springtime.)
23. Complex sentence. Structural classification of complex sentences.Hypotaxis
Complex sent consists of 2 or more clauses the rel bw which are dominational.
Complex Ss are often classified according to the type of sub cls. 2 approaches: 1)on categorical principal (on analogy with class of ws: noun cl, adjective cl) 2)functional principal (the position of what member of the S the cl fills: except predicate).
To characterize the complex S as a complex & to work out the classif of the structural patterns of complex Ss the following criteria are taken into consideration: 1)the structural completeness of the main part; 2)the means of connection & the way the parts are linked; 3)The relative importance of the main & the sub cl.=>Types (structural patterns:1.Inclusive type. The sub cl performs the function of a missing part in the main cl & is included into the structure of the main cl. The main clause is incomplete without the sub.The position of the sub cl results from its function.: What I want to know is why he didn’t come.
2. Ss with pronominal correlation. conj opening the sub cl is correlated with some pronominal element (a pronoun or an adv) in the main cl. The meaning & the function of the sub cl depends on the function of the correlative word. The connection is very tight. sub cl in post-position (sometimes in inter-position), but never precedes the main cl: It was just that which impressed me most.
3. Ss with complement or appositive connection. In this type the main clause contains a word devoid of meaning like ‘it’ or with a very general meaning (question, problem). The sub cl disclose its meaning. The word itselfis just an anticipatory element. The sub cl is often joined asyndetically. It can never be in preposition: She has a strange feeling as if smth has happened.
4. Ss with optional sub clause (adv cl of result, concession, cond).
5. Ss with mutual dependent cls: proportional agreement or comparison: The more I read the more I know.with patterns expressing temporal rel: Hardly had I entered the room the bell rang.
24. Syntactical structure of the cl( simple sentence). The model of the members of the sentence.
Parsing-the process of analyzing sent into their parts or constituents.
At the funct level the sss is described in terms of members of the s performing certain funct. Parts of the s –notional s constituents as they name elements of the sit named by the sent: prosses, participants, circumst. They are in diff relations to other parts of the sent. Trad parts of the sent:principal(predication. Subj-structural center, pred-semantic& communicat) & secondary (obj, att, adv mod(they extend the basic structure). The model of parts of speech the basic relation of notional sent constituents (show the linear order of const)
Dep on synt-semanti properties of the v: obligatory (princip part& complem) & optional.
Structurally members: simple(single w), phrasal, complex(secondary predict constr), compound (sub cl)
Objs:in/direct, prep.
Complements- oblig constituent of s , completes the pred , cannot become a Subj in a passive constr.( subj compl:She is a teacher. obj compl: He painted the door green; predicate compl:The table costs $100)
Adverbials: adjuncts(additional inf: he briefly..), disjunct (speaker’s attitude: undoubtedly ), conjunct(logical link: he was wrong so he kept silent)
25. Structural models of sent analysis. Distributional model. IC-mode
S is a structural, sem & communicative unit. It can be analyzed at different levels. The most universally accepted are syntactic, semantic & logical-communicative.
The term distribution total set of environments of a certain element. may be in:1)non-contrastive distribn(the same position,no difference in mng;variants of the same element):hoofs-hooves; 2)contrastive d.(the same position,different mngs):she’s charming-she’s charmed; 3)complementary d.(the same mng,different position;variants of the same element):cows-oxen. class 1-N, cl2- V, cl3-adj, cl4-adv
The DM shows the linear order of sent constituents. The synt structure of the sent is presented as a sequence of positional classes of words:The old man saw a black dog there (D A1 N1 V D A2 N2 Adv)”+”Showing the linear order of classes of words, “-“ doesn’t show how ws are connected semantically; no inf about actual syntactic relations of sentence constituents. The police shot a man in the red cap(in the right arm)
ICM (based on binary principle, shows the hierarchy of members of S). A sent is a structured string of words grouped into phrases, so sent constituents are words & word-group. The basic principle for grouping words into phrases(endo- or exocentric) is cohesion(the possibility to substitute a word for the whole group without destroying the structure of the sentence). Ex:The old man(NP) saw a black dog there(VP)→2 immediate constituents –NP & VP, each has constituents of its own. Constituents which cannot be further divided are called ultimate (UC). The ICM exists in 2 main versions:1)the analytical model & 2)the derivation tree. 1)divides the sentence into IC-s & UC-s. 2)shows the syntactic dependence of sentence constituents.So the ICM shows both the syntactic relations & the linear order of elements.
26. Transformational model (TM)
IC analysis is supplemented with rules for transforming1 S into another Sentences. TM investigates relations between various derivation trees. in which all constituents are obligatory are called basic structures or elementary sentences or kernel sentences.Linguists single out from 2 to 7 kernel sentences:1)NV 2)NVN 3)NVPrepN 4)NisN 5)NisA 6)NisAdv 7)NisPrepN. The structure of all other sentences may be explained as a result of transformations of kernel structures. This analysis, showing derivational relations of sentences, is called TM→is based on ICM and it goes further showing semantic and syntactic relations of different sentence types. TM describes paradigmatic relations of basic and derived structures or the relations of syntactic derivation.
Transf-ions may be subdivided into: intramodel or (1)single base(changing the kernel structure) and (2)2-base(combining 2 structures). (1)may be of 2 types: modifying the kernel structure(ex: she’s working hard-she’s not working hard) & changing it(ex: she’s working hard-her working hard-her hard work).
Some basic types of intramodel tr.:substitution, deletion(have you seen him?-seen him?);movement (he is here-is he here?);nominalization (he arrived-his arrival);
2-base transformations: embedding(I know that he has come) and word-sharing(I saw him cross the street)
TM shows that some sentences are ambiguous because they derive from distinct deep structures: Flying planes can be dangerous→1)Planes are dangerous, 2)Flying is dangerous. So TM is an effective method of deciding grammatical ambiguity.
27.Semantic structure of the sentence.
Case gr:semantic—deep underlying structure; syntactic-surface structure.
The sem structure of the S was 1st described by Fillmore in his book ‘The Case for Case’. The 2 main components of the sem structure are: modality – the features of mood, tense, aspect, negation relating to the S as a whole ; proposition – a tenseless set of relationships . The proposition is constituted by the sem predicate & a set of nominative elements called arguments. S = modality + proposition; P = V +n1+n2+n3 (nominal elements)
a deep case is a certain sem role performed by a nominative component in the act or state or processnamed by the sem predicate. Types of arguments (Fillmore): 1) agent- does the action, usu animate: Sam planted a tree. 2) Object – smth affected by the action Tom broke the window 3) patient smbd affected by the action 4) instrument He opened the door with the key 5) beneficiary smbd who gains (for) 6) factitive (result) smth that comes into being as a result of the action & didn’t exist before 7) force элементатив) the wind broke the window 8) locative some place experienced as a substance Minsk is a big city 9) temporative some moment or period of time experienced as a substance Yesterday was a busy day.:
Types of pred: material actions, states & processes, mental processes.
The proposition is a reflection of situations & events of the outside world. The semantic predicate determines the number of arguments, or opens up places for arguments.=> types of pred: 1.no participant pred(it rains), 2.1-placepredicates(she cried) 3. 2-place pred(she broke the cup). 4. 3-place pred(she gave me the cup) 5participant unexpended(do you drive(a car))
Chafe (case frame & sem feat of the V)=>types:states (wood is dry), processes (the wood is dried), actions (sang), act-process (he dried the wood), ambient state (it’s hot), ambient act (it’s raining).
28.Communicative structure of the sentence. Functional sentence perspective (FSP).
Linguistic analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain is called the actual division or the analysis of the Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP).
FSP refers to the way the speaker structures the information, the way he identifies the relative importance of utterance parts. Usually the utterance consists of 2 parts: the topic of discussion: smth about which a statement is made & the new information, which adds most to the process of communication. These 2 sections are called the theme & the rheme, or topic & comment. Some sentences contain only the rheme, they are monorhematic: It is getting dark. In the majority of sentences the constituents are either rhematic or thematic. There are also transitional elements. Sentences containing the theme & the rheme are called dirhematic.
Thematic elements are marked by the definite article, loose parenthesis (as for me…),detached parts of the sente;
rhematic elements: by the indefinite article, particles (even, only),negations(none of us can fly), emphatic constructions (It is he, who…).
Progressive information structure- Th-rh.
Some means of preserving the progressive information structure: 1.passive transformations (UNESCO took the first steps. → The first steps were taken by UNESCO) 2.the use of conversives (20 people died in crush. → The crush killed 20 people). 3)The use of personal subject & the nominal predicate –( It was silent in the room. → The room turned silen)t.
Some means of making the subject rhematic: the constructions there is/there are, it is necessary, inversion,etc.
Thematic elements contribute little to the meaning of the utterance as they reflect what has already been communicated, in other words they have the lowest degree of communicative dynamism (CD). Rhematic elements, containing new information which advances the communicative process have the highest degree of CD.
29. Word order
The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order which is fixed for every type of sentence and is,therefore,meaningful. There exist two ways of arranging words-direct order and inverted order.
The most common pattern for the arranfement
of the main parts in a declarative sentence is Subject-Predicate-(Object),
func: gram, communicat, emphatic
Gr: 2)distinguish bw declar & ?sent 2)differentiate synt rel(bw Subj & Direct O(Tom loves Mary) bw Indir O & Dir O(the nurse gave Mary her daughter)) 3)to express attributive connections(People here rise early)
Commun( disting bw TH &RH, connecting sent in the text)
Emph(subjective wo: the new preceeds the given- Very tired she looked)
fixed word order: in many cases, speakers can choose between different constituent orderings or constructional alternations as exemplified in the following sentence pairs: John gave the book to Fred vs. John gave Fred the book, John picked up the book vs. John picked the book up, the President's speech vs. the speech of the President.
30. TEXT In modern linguistics text is considered to be the main unit of linguistic
analysis. Discourse refers to a continuousstrech of utt larger than
a sent.text<->discourse(t-
Supraphrasal unity-2 or more connected sent characterized by the topical unity & semantic-syntactic cohesion.upraph u ch-ed by communicative dynamism: new inf is based on the inf which has been communicated in the previous sent.
A text has texture (текстура, или фактура), and this is what distinguishes it from other linguistic units. The texture is provided by the cohesive relation (когезивные отношения, связующие отношения,) or the co-reference (отнесённости к объекту внеязыковой действительности - реальной или воображаемо) of two elements appearing in anaphoric or cataphoric relations .
Grammatical Cohesive Devices:Anaphora (анафора) is a kind of mng rel bw speech expressions where a subsequent element is interpreted with reference to an initial one. Anaphora is pointing back to some previous item. The presupposed element may be located elsewhere in the preceding context
Cataphora (катафора) is a kind of mng rel where the presupposing element is preceding the presupposed one. Thus cataphora is pointing forwards.
Tie (связка, связь) is a single instance of cohesion (отдельны» случай когезии) and the rel bw a pair of elements standing in anaphoric or cataphoric relations
Personal reference (референция, производимая при помощи личных и притяжательных местоимении) is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person. This reference is performed by personal and possessive (including absolute) pronouns.
Demonstrative reference (указательная референция) is reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity. It is a form of verbal pointing
Comparative reference (сравнительная референция) is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. It is based on comparison