The Qualification Work is preliminary discussed in the English Department.Protocol No. 12 issued on May 12, 2014

This method will not work well where investigations:

• need to be done in the field

• are monitoring change over time

• need to examine a whole system, not just isolated parts.

       Identifying and classifying

Identifying and classifying involves sorting objects or events into groups or categories. Clear systems (criteria) must be developed and used. Keys are often used as criteria to carry out a classifying process, for example, identifying and naming plants.

If the criteria are changed the groupings that result may be quite different and can lead to new scientific discoveries. For example, living things were initially divided into two kingdoms – plants and animals. When micro-organisms were discovered and studied, changes were made to the classification system and the number of kingdoms. A five kingdom classification system is now commonly accepted.

   Modeling

A model can be used to help students understand how a process works, or to explain ideas or a concept. More than one model can be used to explain different aspects of the same concept, for example, there are several models that help describe the structure of the atom.

Some models are already produced, for example, a model heart or diagram. Others will need to be set up, for example, using flour to model impact craters on the Moon.

Electronic models can show sequences and processes, and some can be found on the Internet, for example, Day and Night: Views from the SouthernHemisphere and Open Heart.

Pattern seeking

This method involves observing and recording natural events, or carrying out experiments where the variables can’t easily be controlled.

In pattern seeking, it is still important to note and record variables. The investigator needs to try to identify patterns that result from these variables.

This method is well suited to system sciences like geology, astronomy, ecology, or meteorology.

Once a pattern has been observed this may lead to other investigations in an effort to try to explain why a particular pattern occurs, and to a classifying and identifying system.

Pattern seeking can also help us create models to explain observations, for example, to explain the phases of the Moon.

Researching

Researching involves gathering and analysing other people’s opinions or scientific findings in order to answer a question or to provide background information to help explain observed events.

Research can also show how scientists’ ideas have changed over time as new evidence has been found.

Students need to practice each stage in the research process.

Stage 1: Focusing and planning 
Questions relevant to the direction of the research are generated.

Stage 2: Sourcing information 
Appropriate resources must be found. Using a range of different sources of information helps ensure the ideas are those commonly accepted.

Stage 3: Analysis 
The information needs to be organised and then analysed to ensure that valid conclusions can be drawn.

Stage 4: Reporting 
Finally the research must be reported. This can be done in various ways – for example a demonstration, a poster, a video or a report.

Students who want to find out things as a scientist, will want to conduct a hands-on investigative experiment. While scientists study a whole area of science, each experiment is focused on learning just one thing at a time. This is essential if the results are to be trusted by the entire science community.

In an investigation, students:

• Ask a testable question

• Research the topic

• Make a hypothesis about the outcome based on the research or their own knowledge

• Design the investigation

• Conduct the investigation

• Collect Data

• Make sense of the data and draw a conclusion

• Present their findings for peer review

What is a Testable Question?

The key to a good and manageable investigation is to choose a topic of interest, then ask what is called a “testable question.” Testable questions are those that can be answered through hands-on investigation by the student. The key difference between a general interest science question and a testable question is that testable questions are always about changing one thing to see what the effect is on another thing.

Here are some examples of broader science questions and testable questions:

 

Easy Testable Questions (recommended for elementary level)
Broad Questions (lead to science reports)	Testable questions (lead to investigations)
How do plants grow?	What amount of water is best to grow tomatoes? or What type of soil is best to grow petunias? or What amount of sunlight is best to grow daffodils?
What makes something sink or float?	How well do different materials sink or float in water?
How do rockets work?	How does changing the shape of a rocket’s fins change its flight?
How does the sun heat up water?	Does the sun heat salt water and fresh water at the same rate?
What happens when something freezes?	Do different liquids freeze at the same rate?
What makes cars move?	How does the surface on which a car moves affect how fast it goes?
How do batteries work?	Which type of battery lasts the longest?
What makes a magnet attract things?	Does temperature have an effect on a magnet’s strength?
Why does ice melt?	What is the best insulator to keep ice from melting?

More Complex Testable Questions (recommended for middle school level)
Broad Questions (lead to reports)	Testable questions (lead to investigations)
How do lubricants work?	Which combination of lubricants will work best on a bicycle wheel?
What can affect animal behaviors?	What is the effect of a low-level electrical field on the movement of fruit flies?
What happens when water expands as it freezes?	How much force is needed to keep water from expanding as it freezes?
What is soap?	Which detergent removes stains the best?
What is bread mold?	What conditions keep bread mold from growing on bread?
What do birds eat?	What type of food and feeder will attract the most cardinals?

 

 

 

Individual students may be better suited to learning in a particular way, using

distinctive modes for thinking, relating and creating. The notion of students having

particular learning styles has implications for teaching strategies. Because preferredmodes of input and output vary from one individual to another, it is critical thatteachers use a range of teaching strategies to effectively meet the needs of individuallearners. Sound health instruction should incorporate a variety of teaching methodsintended to complement the learning styles of children. This should lead to younglearners who are both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated to inquire, infer, andinterpret; to think reflectively, critically and creatively; and in the final analysis to makeuse of the knowledge and skills they have gained by becoming effective decisionmakers.[11, P.19].

Сlassrooms investigation as something that can only happen ‘inaddition’ to teaching and learning, something that can only be done after the needs of studentshave been met. Understood in this way, classroom investigations are intrusions on teachingand learning in an already crowded curriculum. This module promotes a different view. Itseeks to develop the idea that classroom investigation can be an ongoing ‘stance’ that enablesus to gather valuable information about teaching and learning practice that may otherwise gounnoticed. This information can in turn inform how we understand and develop interculturallanguage teaching and learning for our students.[20,P.52].

The ideas of experiment and investigation are central to science but problematic for students and some teachers especially if they do not understand or identify with the question being asked. The graduate work  explores some examples frequently used in science classrooms and looks at 'fair testing', the control of variables. The importance of being clear about the purpose and planning of practical work is stressed.

Some of the recent research and development projects in this area are introduced.Investigations are the ultimate aim of children's practical work in school, and all trainee teachers should undertake an investigation, and attempt to assess their success as part of the process of coming to terms with what we are asking pupils to do in school.

It is vital that pupils/students do not see the purpose of an investigation as being to gain high marks in an assessment.- clearly an assessment should be serious, but the marks ore an outcome of how the investigation is done and communicated not why an investigation is done.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. Classroom observation

Observation is an important part of learning how to teach. Much of what beginner teachers need to be aware of can not be learned solely in the university class. Therefore classroom observation presents an opportunity to see real-life teachers in real-life teaching situations. In their reflections, many of our teacher friends mention their observations and how these observations influence the way they plan and teach. Teachers are forever reflecting and making decisions, and when they see someone else in action, in as much as they are seeing someone else, they are almost simultaneously seeing themselves. This means that observation is important at every stage of a teacher’s career. In this section we will discuss the importance and value of observation, not only for student teachers, but for ALL teachers

A classroom observation is a formal or informal observation of teaching while it is taking place in a classroom or other learning environment. Typically conducted by fellow teachers, administrators, or instructional specialists, classroom observations are often used to provide teachers with constructive critical feedback aimed at improving their classroom management and instructional techniques. School administrators also regularly observe teachers as an extension of formal job-performance evaluations. .[36, P.78].

Classroom observation describes the practice of sitting in on another teacher’s class to observe, learn and reflect. Various aspects of the class can be examined, such as routines, use of time, schedule, participation, teaching strategies, management strategies, learner interest, and much more. A teacher will naturally look for support on an issue that is difficult for him or her, but it is often a great method of being exposed to a new and different approach to teaching. 

Observation is important at every stage of a teacher’s career. In areas of Asia, professional development has for a very long time included what is known as demonstration lessons; a master teacher, who has perhaps prepared students with some new strategies, invites many local teachers into their classroom to observe, and following the lesson a question and answer period takes place. All of the teachers involved, regardless of whether they are master teachers or beginning teachers, have the opportunity to dialogue together and learn from one another. This is a more recent trend in North America; schools are now trying to create opportunities for teachers to observe other teachers in their subject area, either in their own school or in other schools.For a teacher at the beginning of their career, there are some general issues that the teacher would need to observe and identify.  The focus would be on general pedagogic knowledge, which includes issues such as classroom management, differentiation and instructional strategies.

However, with training and experience teachers would need to progress to focus on other issues, which can be categorized as Pedagogic Content Knowledge (PCK). In this case, the teachers would focus on the overlap between pedagogic knowledge and content knowledge and specifically with an interest in what takes place in an SL classroom.For example, it would be difficult to imagine an SL classroom without pair work activities. In other classes and other subjects one might observe group work activities; however, due to the linguistic content, there would be significant differences between the interactive exercises. In other subjects group work or pair work might be optional; but in a language classroom they are absolutely necessary. Furthermore, beginner SL learners require much more structure in an activity than beginners in other courses, because the structure increases the likelihood of success.

Classroom observation can often help expose teachers to new methods of teaching that might not have occurred to them beforehand. It may be threatening to be subject to peer observation since teachers might feel territorial and defensive in their classroom and protective of their resources and ideas. However, when it is done in a considerate and respectful fashion, observation can be beneficial for both the observing teacher and the teacher being observed. Below are some benefits of observation in the classroom. One of the main challenges for observation is knowing what to look for. Some teacher education programs offer checklists for observation but it is often difficult to find specific checklists for subject areas, such as second language teaching. Some specific things that one can look for when observing include how the teacher structures an activity; what the actual instructions are and whether they are given in English or the target language; if the teacher use synonyms for those basic instructions, or uses the same words, and what were those words; does the teacher give some visual cues to accompany those instructions; are the instructions divided into three or four steps with a visual icon visible on the board.

These observations can be made because you are observing a more experienced teacher of second languages, or a teacher who is far more aware of what it takes to structure a classroom for the success of second language learners. Classroom observations may be called learning walks, teacher observations, walkthroughs, and many other things, and they may be conducted for shorter or longer periods of time—from a few minutes to a full class period or school day. Educators may also use a wide variety of classroom-observation methods—some may be nationally utilized models developed by educational experts, while others may be homegrown processes created by the educators using them. In many cases, observation notes are recorded using common templates or guidelines that describe what observers should be looking for or what the observed teacher would like feedback on.

Increasingly, educators are conducting and recording classroom observations using digital and online technologies—such as smart phones, tablets, and subscription-based online systems—that can provide educators with observational functionality and data analytics that would not be possible if paper-based processes were used. While classroom observations are conducted for a wide variety of purposes, they are perhaps most commonly associated with job-performance evaluations conducted by school administrators and with professional learning communities—groups of teachers who work together to improve their instructional skills.

Classroom observations may be conducted by teachers in the same content area or grade level—in these cases, teachers share students or similar expertise—or they may be conducted by teachers across academic disciplines—in this case, the goal may be to observe and learn from the varied instructional practices used in different types of classes.

It should also be noted that many educators make a strict delineation between observations made for the purposes of helping a teacher improve, and those conducted for the purposes of job-performance evaluation. Some educators may object to the use, or other terms associated with non-administrative observations, when referencing evaluative observations by school administrators.[10,P .21]

            Generally speaking, classroom observations could be considered a de-facto school-improvement strategy, since they are typically intended to improve instructional quality and teaching effectiveness, whether they are conducted by fellow teachers or by administrators.

Since teachers often work in relative isolation from their colleagues—e.g., they may create courses and lessons on their own, or teach behind the closed doors of a classroom without much feedback from colleagues—teaching styles, educational philosophies, and academic expectations often vary widely from class to class, as does the effectiveness of lessons and instructional techniques. Classroom observations arose in response to these common trends, and they are often used as a form of professional development intended to foster greater collaboration and more sharing of expertise and insights among teachers in a school.

            Classroom observations may become the object of debate or criticism for a variety of reasons. For example, if classroom observations are used as part of a job-evaluation process, school leaders, teachers, and teacher unions may have divergent ideas about how the observations should be conducted and what the evaluation criteria should be. In addition, while classroom observations have long been used in the job-performance evaluations of teachers, some critics contend that the observations contribute relatively little to the improvement of teaching for several possible reasons:

• Principals may not use consistent, evidence-based evaluation criteria.

• Principals may not have been trained in proper observation strategies, or they may not have the teaching experience or expertise required to evaluate instructional techniques.

• Job-performance observations are typically prescheduled, which means that teachers can prepare in advance and alter their methods, and that the quality of teaching on the observed day may not be representative of a teacher’s normal practice.

• The feedback teachers receive may be superficial, inconsistent, or unhelpful in terms of improving instructional quality.

• Most teachers receive high job-performance ratings from principals, even in poorly performing schools where there is evidence that low-quality teaching is occurring.

            Classroom observations may also challenge established institutional conventions and teaching practices, which can make the strategy an emotional topic in some schools. For example, some teachers may not see any value in the process, they take issue with the specific criteria being used, they may not approve of certain people watching them teach, or they may be uncomfortable with the idea of being observed because they they may feel threatened or insecure in such situations, to name just a few possible reasons.[36, P.56].

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Summary of the chapter

In this chapter I write about investigation types and their importance for classroom audience . The ideas of experiment and investigation are central to science but problematic for students and some teachers especially if they do not understand or identify with the question being asked.

This work explores some examples frequently used in science classrooms and looks at 'fair testing', the control of variables. The importance of being clear about the purpose and planning of practical work is stressed. Some of the recent research and development projects in this area are introduced.

Our students need to realize that children do not come to science as 'blank slates to be written on' or as ‘empty vessels to be filled’. They have ideas about why things happen. These naïve ideas are likely to differ from the accepted scientific view, and may remain uninfluenced, if our teaching ignores them and/or the students do not actively and intellectually become involved in the investigation itself.

The first part of this unit, ideas and evidence, explored the nature of the scientific process, summed up by ideas and evidence, or guesswork and check work.

Although scientific ideas are products of our imagination (or at least the imagination of scientists who thought them up), they do have to stand up to rigorous testing.

The second part of these unit investigative skills examines how we can help intending teachers to cope with the experimental and investigative side to science, and covers, amongst others, the idea of making fair tests.

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER II. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

 

2.1. Classroom Management and Motivation

Classroom management is a term used by teachers to describe the process of ensuring that classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students. The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behavior. It is possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many teachers; indeed experiencing problems in this area causes some to leave teaching altogether. In 1981 the US National Educational Association reported that 36% of teachers said they would probably not go into teaching if they had to decide again. A major reason was "negative student attitudes and discipline".