Geography of the USA

Northern Ireland was for many years the site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflict — the Troubles — which was caused by divisions between nationalists, who are predominantly Roman Catholic, and unionists, who are predominantly Protestant. Unionists want Northern Ireland to remain as a part of the United Kingdom, while nationalists wish for it to be politically reunited with the rest of Ireland, independent of British rule. Since the signing of the "Good Friday Agreement" in 1998, most of the paramilitary groups involved in the Troubles have stopped their armed campaigns.

Due to its unique history, the issue of the symbolism, name and description of Northern Ireland is complex, and similarly the issue of citizenship and identity. In general, Unionists consider themselves British and Nationalists see themselves as Irish, though these identities are not necessarily mutually exclusive.

The Northern Ireland economy is the smallest of the four economies making up the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland has traditionally had an industrial economy, most notably in shipbuilding, rope manufacture and textiles, but most heavy industry has since been replaced by services, primarily the public sector. Tourism also plays a big role in the local economy. More recently the economy has benefited from major investment by many large multi-national corporations into high tech industry. These large organisations are attracted by government subsidies and the skilled workforce in Northern Ireland.

With its improved international reputation, Northern Ireland has recently witnessed rising numbers of tourists. Attractions include cultural festivals, musical and artistic traditions, countryside and geographical sites of interest, public houses, welcoming hospitality and sports (especially golf and fishing).

 

 

 

 

 

47. Political Parties. Electoral system.

Political parties first appeared in Britain at the end of the 17th cen¬tury. The Conservative and Liberal Parties are the oldest and until the end of the 19th century they were the only parties elected to the House of Commons. The main British po¬litical groupings are the Conservative and Labour Parties and the Party of Liberal Democrats. There are also some other parties: the Scottish National and Welsh Nationalist7 Parties, the Communist Party of Brit¬ain and the Communist Party of Great Britain.

Because of the electoral method in use, only two major parties obtain (получают) seats in the House of Commons. People be¬longing to smaller political parties join one of the larger parties.

The Conservative Party

Today the Conservative Party, often called the Tory Party, is that of big business, industry, com¬merce and landowners. Most of the money needed to run the party comes from large firms and companies. The party repre¬sents those who believe in private enterprise. There is some division within the party itself: the more aristocratic wing and the lower-middle-class group. The Conservative Party is the most powerful. Today it can be described as the party of the middle and upper classes.

The Liberal Party

In the middle of the 19th century the Liberal Party represented the trading and manufacturing classes. Its slogan (лозунг) at that time was 'Civil and Religious Liberty'. At the end of the 19th century and in the first two decades of the 20th century with the rise of the Labour Party, the Liber¬als lost the support of working-class voters. In 1988 the Liberal Party made an alliance with Social Democrats and the Party of Liberal Democrats was formed.

The Labour Party, formed in 1900, was the one which drew away working people's support. It was founded by the Trades Unions, the main aim was to win working class representation in Parliament. Since 1924 the Labour Party has been in and out of power five times with the Conservatives forming the government for the rest of the time. The social system has remained unchanged.

The Party of Social and Liberal Democrats formed in 1988 from the Liberal Party and the Social Democrats is a British political party of the centre. It is the third largest party, but it is quite small.

After 1945 further minority parties were born, such as extremely reactionary, anti-immigrant National Front, and the conservationist Ecology Party.

Electoral system

The House of Commons is the only chamber in the British Parliament which is elected at General Elections. British citizens can vote provided they are 18 and over, resident in the UK, registered in the annual register of electors and not subject to any disqualifications. 

The UK is divided into 659 electoral districts, called constituencies of approximately equal population and each const, elects the member of the House of Commons. No person can be elected except under the name of the party, and there is little chance except as the candidate backed by either the Labor or the Conservative party.  In every constituency each of  the 2 parties has  a  local organization,  which chooses the candidate,  and then helps him to conduct his local  campaign,  in a British election the candidate who wins  the most votes  in elected,  even if he doesn't get as many as  the combined votes of the other candidates.  The winner takes it all.  This is known as notorious majority electoral system that is often criticized for being unfair to smaller parties that have very little chance to send their candidate to the Commons.  It aims to give each party a proportion of seats in Parliament corresponding to the proportion of votes it receives at the election.  As soon as the results of general elections are known, it is clear which party will form the government.  The leader of the majority party becomes Prime Minister and the new House of Commons meets.  The chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker.  He is elected by the House at the beginning of each parliament.  His chief function is to preside over the House in the debate. The Speaker must not belong to any party.

 

48. State and private education. British universities

State education

The educational system of Great Britain has developed for over a hundred years. It is a complicated system with wide variations between one part of the country and another. Three partners are responsible for the education service: cen¬tral government - the Department of Education and Science, local education authorities, and schools themselves.

The great majority of children (about 9 million) attend Britain's 30,500 state schools. No tuition fees are paid in any of them. In most primary and secondary state schools boys and girls are taught to¬gether. The school year normally begins in early September and continues into the following July. The year is divided into three terms of about 13 weeks each.

Compulsory education begins at the age of 5 in England, Wales and Scot land, and 4 in Northern Ireland. All pupils must stay at school until the age of 16. About 9 per cent of pupils in state schools remain at school voluntarily until the age of 18. Education within the state school system comprises either two stages - primary and secondary, or three - first schools, middle schools and upper schools.

Private education

There are about 2,500 private schools, often referred to as the "independent sector" where the parents have to pay for their children. A lot of independent schools for younger children are also mixed, but the majority of them are single-sex. Around 550 most privileged and expensive independent schools are com¬monly known as public schools.

The public school system is valued because it produces leaders; it is a separate system of education for the rich. Participation in sports is considered of great im¬portance, though the emphasis on sports is not as great now as it used to be. Relig¬ion holds an important place in school life, but it is no longer the chief education concern.

Though limited in number the public schools are the largest and the most important of the independent (private) schools. They accept pupils at about 12 or 13 years of age usually on the basis of a strict selection. They are fee-paying and very expensive, their standards for entries are very high. Most of them are boys' boarding schools, although some are day schools and some are for girls. Most public schools were founded in Vic¬torian times, but many of them are several hundred years old. The nine most an¬cient and aristocratic remain among the most important public schools: Eton (1440), Harrow (1571), Winchester (1382), Westminster (1560), St.Paul's (1509), Merchant Taylor's (1561), Rugby (1567), Charter house (1611) and Shrewsbury (1552).

All British universities are private institutions. Students have to pay fees and living costs, but every student may obtain a personal grant from local authorities. If the parents do not earn much money, their children will receive a full grant which will cover all the expenses. Students studying for first degrees are known as “undergraduates”. New undergraduates in some universities are called “fresher”. They have lectures, there are regular seminars.

After three or four years the students will take their finals. Those who pass examinations successfully are given the Bachelor’s degree: Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science. The first postgraduate degree is Master of Arts, Master of Science. Doctor of Philosophy is the highest degree. It is given for some original research work which is an important contribution to knowledge.

The most famous universities in Britain are Oxford and Cambridge. They are the two oldest English universities and they both have a long and eventful history of their own. Oxford and Cambridge are regarded as being academically superior to other universities and as giving special privilege and prestige. Cambridge University consists of a group of 32 independent colleges. The first students came to the city in 1209 and studied in the schools of the cathedral and monasteries.

The Open University offers degrees for people who do not have a formal education and qualifications, or who are older. Students study at home and then post them off to a tutor for marking. Most courses take six years and students get a number of credits for each year’s work. The Open University was founded in 1969 and started its first course in 1971. About 120, 000 people have enrolled since then.

Other universities: Cardiff University, Lancaster University, University of Glasgow, University of London, University of Kent, Royal College of Music, The Queen's University of Belfast and many others.

 

 

 

 

49. Constitutional monarchy. Powers of the monarch. British Government. The Cabinet. Local authorities.

The UK is one of the few developed countries where a constitutional monarchy has survived with its old customs, traditions and ceremonies. There are 2 basic principles of the British constitution; THE ROLES OF LAW and THE ROLES OF CUSTOMS.  In 1215 Magna Carta was accepted which was aimed to limit the powers of the king.  In 1265 the 1st parliament was summoned.  Since then British constitutional monarchy has developed as a result of countless Acts of parliament.  The Bill of Rights (1689) was a major legal step to constitutional monarchy.

Since 1689 the power of parliament has grown steadily, while the power of the monarch has weakened. A constitutional monarch is one who can rule only with the support of parliament. Today the Queen reigns, though she doesn't rule. Being a constitutional monarch the Queen acts on the advice of her prime minister and doesn't make any major political decisions.  The Queen is the head of state and the symbol of the nation unity. She is head of the executive and the judiciary, the commander- in- chief of all armed forces, the supreme governor of the established Church of England and the personal Head of the Commonwealth.

The powers of the Queen are:

1) to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament;

2)  to appoint  government ministers, judges, officers in armed forces, diplomats and bishops of the Church;

3)  to confer honours such as peerages, knighthoods;

4) to give royal approval of Bills passed by Parliament.

In international  affairs the Queen has the power to declare war,  make peace,  recognize foreign states  and governments  etc.,  she  is informed and consulted  on every issue in national life.

Her Majesty’s Government is the body of ministers responsible for the conduct of national affairs. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen, and all the other ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Most Ministers are members of the House of Commons, although the Government is also fully represented by ministers of the Lords.

The Prime Minister is also, by tradition, First Lord of the Treasure and minister for the Civil Service. He is responsible for the allocation of function among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of the general business of the Government. Moreover, the Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet.

What is the Cabinet? Most governments consist of about one hundred                                                                              ministers, but the essential core (центр) is the Cabinet, the sixteen to twenty-four senior ministers invited by the Prime Minister to belong to it. Each member of the Cabinet is a minister responsible for a government department. The Cabinet meets once a week in Number 10 Downing Street. It helps to deal with the complicated machinery of government. It runs a busy communication network, keeping ministers in touch with each other.

How do the central and local government co-operate: All local authorities derive their existence and their powers and functions from Parliament and the central government. Parliament can take powers away or add to them, and even abolish any particular authority.     

The head of a local council: Every local council has its presiding officer,                                                                              chosen by the whole council for one year only. All local councils work through committees. Each council has a committee for each of the main sections of its work. The local authorities appoint their own staff. It is supposed to have nothing to do with politics. Local councils are allowed to collect one    kind of tax. This is a tax based on property. All other kinds of taxes are collected by central government.

 

 

 

 

50. The British Parliament

There are 3 elements of the Br. Parliament - the Queen and the 2 Houses of Parliament, (the House of Lords and the elected House of Commons).  These elements act separate, constituted on different principles and meet only on occasions of symbolic significance.  The supreme legislative authority in GB, parliament, resides in Westminster Palace, and all its power is concentrated in the British Constitution.

Members of parliament are elected at general election which is usually held every 5 years.  The arrangement of seating in both Houses reflects the party system.  Both debating chambers are rectangular in shape and have at one end the seat of the Speaker, and the other end a technical barrier.  Leaders of the Government and the Opposition sit on the front benches of their respective to the seat of the Speaker. 

The House of Lords consists of Lords Spiritual (senior bishops) and Lords Temporal (lay peers).  Members are not elected; the House of Lords underwent a major reform in 1999.  The hereditary lords or peers lost the right to sit in the House of Lords.  The number of Conservative peers reduced. The procedure of the House of Lords is rather informal and is comparable to that of the House of Commons. 

The Lord Chancellor presides over the House as its Speaker.  There is no Minister of Justice but the Lord Chancellor performs some of its functions.  The House of Lords consists of 675 members. The House of Lords also includes ministers, government Whips, the Leader of the main opposition party and 2 Chairmen of the Committees. 

The House of Commons is elected by the adult population.  Consists of 646 MPs.  The chief officer of the House of Commons is the speaker. He is elected by the House at the beginning of each Parliament. His chief function is to preside over the House in its debate.  When elected. The Speaker must not belong to any party.

The House of Commons has 6 Administrative and executive departments:  1) of the Clerk of the House 2) of the Sergeant at Arms 3) of the Library 4} of the official Report 5) Administration Dep.  6) Refreshment Dep.  The 6 administrative Departments are under the supervision of The House of Commons Commission composed by the MPs, and chaired by the Speaker.

   The main functions of the Parliament:  to pass laws, to provide the means of carrying on the work of Government policy and administration, to debate the most important political issues of the day. Nevertheless, the principal duty is legislation, making laws.  In the past Legislation was initiated from both sides of the House:  from the government and from the opposition.  But in present-day practice almost all bills are brought forward by the Government in power.  Bills may be introduced in either House, unless they deal with finance or representation, when they are always introduced in the Commons. The process of passing bills is the same in the House of Lords as in the House of Commons.