The USA

Content

 

1. Geographical position and climate of the USA

2. State system of the USA

3. Education system of the USA

4. Industry of the USA

5. Railway of the USA

6. Fifty states

Conclusion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Geographical position and climate of the USA

 

Geographical position

 

The USA is the most powerful and highly developed country of the world. It is situated in the central part of the North American continent. Its western coast is washed by the Pacific Ocean and its eastern coast is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The USA is separated from Canada in the north by the 49th parallel and the Great Lakes and from Mexico in the south by a line following the Rio Grande River and continuing across the highlands to the Pacific Ocean. The total area of the USA is over 9 million square kilometers. The continental part of the USA consists of the highland regions and two lowland regions. The highland regions are the Appalachia Mountains in the east and the Cordillera in the west. Between the Cordillera and the Appalachian Mountains are the central lowlands which are called the prairie and eastern lowlands called the Mississippi valley. The principal rivers of the USA are the Mississippi, the longest river in the world (7,330 km) and the Hudson River.

The nation's natural advantages and resources are probably greater than those of any other area of equal size. The land is as varied as it huge. There are plains and mountains grasslands and forests, sandy soil, clay and rich, dark loams.

The mineral resources vary from precious gold and rare uranium to common lead and zinc. Coal, oil, iron, copper and other minerals are abundant. They form basis of modern industry.

 

Climate

 

The United States has many kinds of climate. The weather ranges from the warm, wet conditions of the Appalachians to the semi-desert or desert conditions in some of the western states. It varies from southern Arizona and southern Florida, where almost there is no winter at all, to the territory of Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota, where there are long, very cold and severe winters. In other words, the US has practically all the climatic zones. The main land mass of the US is in the temperate zone. The climatic conditions of the country are determined by the great mountains and the wind. West of the Rocky Mountains, running all the way from the Canadian border to Mexico, there are vast areas where almost no trees grow. In this section of the country there are deserts, which receive as little as 12-13 centimeters of rainfall a year. Yet, west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, there are places in which 250 centimeters of rain fall annually. It is one of the wettest places in the USA. There are all kinds of differences in the climate of the US. For instance, all along the western coast, the temperature changes little between winter and summer. In some places, the average difference between July and January is as little as 10 degrees Centigrade. The climate along the northern part of this coast is similar to that of England. But in the north central part of the country the temperature difference between winter and summer is very great — 36 degrees Centigrade and even more. The coldest days of January may be — 40 degrees Centigrade, and the hottest July days may be 45 degrees. In the eastern part of the US, the difference between summer and winter is also very distinct, but not so extreme.

In the south-eastern corner of the country the climate is mild and spring is like winter, but in summer the temperature may be very high.

Hawaii, the 50th state, is a chain of over 100 islands, lying in the Pacific and stretching from southeast to northwest for 2,575 kilometers. Although this state is located in tropical zone, its climate is favorable, because of the ocean currents that pass its shores and the winds that blow across the land from the northeast. The temperature usually remains close to the annual average of 24 degrees Centigrade.

The situation in Alaska is different. In those parts of the state which lie above the Arctic Circle, Alaska still is a land of icebergs and polar bears. Ice masses lie buried in the earth, which is permanently frozen land to a depth of 90 or more meters.

From early May until early August, the midnight sun never sets on this flat, treeless region, but the sun cannot melt the icy soil more than two thirds of a meter down. The Japan Current of the Pacific warms Alaska, and the Arctic cools it. The temperature may drop as low as — 43 degrees Centigrade in some places, and may drop to 30 degrees in others. In the north, in any given year, more than 11 meters of snow may fall.

 

 

2. State systems of the USA

 

The Higher Organs of Power in the USA

 

By the US Constitution the government of the nation is entrusted to three separate authorities: the Executive, the Legislative and the Judicial. The executive power is vested in the President, who holds his office during the term of four years, and is elected together with the Vice-President.

Among the duties and powers of the President listed by the Constitution are the following: the President is Commandeering-Chief of the armed forces, he makes treaties and appoints ambassadors to foreign powers as well as other high officers of the United States. Within his competence is also the responsibility for taking care that the laws be faithfully executed.

From this one can see that the Constitution gives the President some measure of control of the military establishment, imposes upon him a responsibility for foreign policy and assigns to him the obligation to administer federal programmes.

The administrative business of the nation is conducted by Secretaries who form the Cabinet. They are appointed by the President but their nomination must be confirmed by the Senate. The Cabinet is a kind of an advisory group to the President which has developed by custom rather than by the provisions of the Constitution. The Vice-President likewise participates in the cabinet meetings. The cabinet members are: the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Defence, the Attorney General, the 'Postmaster General, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Labour, and the Secretaries of Health, Education and Welfare.

As chief executive officer, the President can at his discretion remove any Secretary. The Executive Office of the President is represented by a group of agencies. First of all, these are: the White House Office, the Bureau of the Budget, the National Security Council, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Council of Economic Advisers, and the Office of Civil and Defence Mobilisation. These are not advisory bodies but the bodies which carry out administrative functions.

The whole legislative power in the USA is vested in the Congress. There are two chambers in the US Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Besides the legislative function the Senate is entrusted with the power of ratifying or rejecting all treaties made by the President.

 

Administration. State and Municipal Governments

 

The governments of the 50 states have structures closely paralleling those of the federal government. Each state has a governor, a legislature and a judiciary. Each state has its own constitution.

All state legislatures but one have two houses, Nebraska's being unicameral. Traditionally, state legislatures have been dominated by rural representatives who may not always be sympathetic to the needs of growing urban areas. Most state judges are elected.

State governments have functions, encompassing agriculture and conservation, highway and motor vehicle supervision, public safety and corrections, licensing, business and industry, and certain aspects of education, public health and welfare. These activities require a large administrative organization, headed by the governor.

In most states there is also a lieutenant governor, not always of the same party as the governor, who serves as the presiding officer of the Senate. Other elected officials commonly include a secretary of state, state treasurer, state auditor and attorney general.

Municipal governments are more diverse in structure than state governments. There are three basic types: mayor-council governments, commission governments and council-manager governments.

In the first type, the mayor and the council are elected; although the council is nominally responsible for formulating city ordinances, which the mayor enforces, the mayor often controls the actions of the council. Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Seattle, Wash., are among those cities having the mayor-council type of government.

In the commission type, voters elect a number of commissioners, each of whom serves as head of a city department; the presiding commissioner is generally the mayor. Tulsa, Okla., and Salt Lake City, Utah, are included among the cities with commission governments.

In the council-manager type, an elected council hires a city manager to administer the city departments. The mayor, elected by the council, simply chairs it and officiates at important functions. Des Moines, Iowa, and Cincinnati, Ohio, have council-manager governments.

 

The US Congress

 

The Congress of the United States is composed of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate represents the states. Each state is guarantied at least one representative in the House. The remainder are apportioned among the states according to their population. The Senate of US is composed of one hundred members — two being elected from each state.

Senators are chosen for six years, one-third retiring or seeking is re-elected every two years. Two senators from the same state never finish their terms at the same time, one of them is called "Senior Senator" and the other — "Junior Senator".

The presiding officer of the Senate is the Vice-President of the United States. The Vice-President is not a member of the chamber over which he presides and he sometimes is not a member of the party in power.

The work of the US Congress is done mostly in different committees. The most important of the Senate committees are Appropriations Foreign Relations, Finance, Armed Services.

In the House of Representatives the most important are Rules, Appropriations, Ways and Means, Judiciary, Agriculture. The chairmen of the standing committees are considered the real rulers of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

 

The President of the United States

 

Do you want to be President of the United States of America? Maybe you can apply for the post.

Answer these three questions. Are you a US citizen? Are you thirty-five years old or older? Have you been a resident of the United States for fourteen years or longer?

Did you say "yes" to all three questions? Then you can take the first steps to the White House.

You become President for a term. A term is four years. You can only serve two terms. This means that you can only be President twice.

This law was adopted in 1951. Before that the law was different. In fact, Franklin D. Roosevelt became President in 1933. He was still President when he died in 1945. He was President for twelve years. No one was President longer than he was.

As President of the United States, you earn $ 200,000 a year. You also get an extra $ 50,000 for expenses, tax free. You have your own limousine, jet, and housekeepers, all free.

You also live rent free, in the White House in Washington, D. С And you are the head of the richest country in the world.

Presidents of the United States were people of very different professions. Twenty-two were lawyers, four — soldiers, four — farmers, four — teachers, two — writers, two — businessmen, one — engineer, one — tailor, and one — actor. Eight of them did not have a college education!

 

 

3. Education systems of the USA

 

Education

 

Education is not mentioned in the Constitution, nor is there any federal department of education, so the matter is left to individual states. Education is free and compulsory in all 'states, however, from the age of 6 till 16 (or 18).

At 6 years of age children go to elementary school, or first grade (the second year is "grade 2" etc.). At elementary school the emphasis is placed on the basic skills (speaking, reading, writing, and arithmetic), though the general principle throughout the American school system is that children should be helped to develop their own interests.

Children move on to high school in the ninth grade, where they continue until the twelfth grade. There are two basic types of high school: one with a more academic curriculum, preparing students for admission to college, and the other offering primarily vocational education (training in a skill or trade).

The local school board decides which courses are compulsory There is great freedom of choice, however, and an important figure in high schools is the guidance counsellor, who advises the students on what courses to take on the basis of their career choices and the frequent tests defining abilities and propensities.

In order to receive the high school diploma necessary in most states to get into college, students must accumulate a minimum number of credits, which are awarded for the successful completion of each one- or half-year course. Students hoping to be admitted to the more famous universities require far more than the minimum number of credits and must also have good grades (the mark given on the basis of course work and a written examination).

Extracurricular activity (such as playing for one of the schools sports teams) is also very important in the American school system and is taken into consideration by colleges and employers.

 

Higher Education

There are about 3,000 colleges and universities, both private and public, in the United States. They are all independent, offering their own choice of studies, setting their own admission standards and deciding which students meet those standards. The greater the prestige of the university, the higher the grades required.

The terms "college" and "university" are often used interchangeably, as "college" is used to refer to all undergraduate education and the four-year undergraduate programme, leading to a bachelor's degree, can be followed at either college or university. Universities is larger than colleges and also have graduate schools where students can receive post-graduate education.

During the first two years students usually follow general courses in the arts or sciences and then choose a major (the subject or area of studies in which they concentrate — the other subjects are called minors).

Credits (with grades) are awarded for the successful completion of each course. These credits are often transferable, so students who have not done well in high school can choose a junior college (or community college), which offers a two-year "transfer" programme, preparing students for degree-granting institutions.

Community colleges also offer two-year courses of a vocational nature, leading to technical and semi-professional occupations, such as journalism.

 

4. Industry and agriculture of the USA

 

Industry

 

The USA remains the world's leading producer of goods and services, although its margin of superiority is diminishing as other countries become more competitive in the world's market. Industrial and technological position of the states is very high. The USA is the leading producer of electrical energy, aluminum, copper, sylph and paper, and one of the top producers of natural gas and automobiles. No other nation exports as much high technology as the USA.

Although the United States remains one of the world's preeminent industrial powers, manufacturing no longer plays as dominant a role in the economy as it once did.

Between 1979 and 1998, manufacturing employment fell from 20.9 million to 18.7 million, or from 21.8% to 14.8% of national employment. Throughout the 1960s, manufacturing accounted for about 29% of total national income; by 1987, the proportion was down to about 19%. In 2002, manufacturing was experiencing a decline due to the recession that began in March 2001, according to the Institute for Supply Management's (ISM) gauge of manufacturing activity.

Industrial activity within the United States has been expanding southward and westward for much of the 20th century, most rapidly since World War II. Louisiana, Oklahoma, and especially Texas are centers of industrial expansion based on petroleum refining; aerospace and other high technology industries are the basis of the new wealth of Texas and California, the nation's leading manufacturing state. The industrial heartland of the United States is the east–north–central region, comprising Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, with steelmaking and automobile manufacturing among the leading industries. The Middle Atlantic states (New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania) and the Northeast are also highly industrialized; but of the major industrial states in these two regions, Massachusetts has taken the lead in reorienting itself toward such high-technology industries as electronics and information processing.

Large corporations are dominant especially in sectors such as steel, automobiles, pharmaceuticals, aircraft, petroleum refining, computers, soaps and detergents, tires, and communications equipment. The growth of multinational activities of US corporations has been rapid in recent decades.

The history of US industry has been marked by the introduction of increasingly sophisticated technology in the manufacturing process. Advances in chemistry and electronics have revolutionized many industries through new products and methods: examples include the impact of plastics on petrochemicals, the use of lasers and electronic sensors as measuring and controlling devices, and the application of microprocessors to computing machines, home entertainment products, and a variety of other industries. Science has vastly expanded the number of metals available for industrial purposes, notably such light metals as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium. Integrated machines now perform a complex number of successive operations that formerly were done on the assembly line at separate stations. Those industries have prospered that have been best able to make use of the new technology, and the economies of some states—in particular California and Massachusetts—have been largely based on it.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the United States was the world leader in computer manufacturing. At the beginning of the 21st century, however, the high-tech manufacturing industry registered a decline. Employment in high-technology manufacturing fell by 415,000 jobs from January 2001 to December 2002, a decrease of 20%. Semiconductor manufacturing had been migrating out of the United States to East Asian countries, especially China, Taiwan, and Singapore, and research and development in that sector declined from 1999–2003. Certain long-established industries—especially clothing and steelmaking—have suffered from outmoded facilities that (coupled with high US labor costs) have forced the price of their products above the world market level. In 2002, the United States was the world's 3rd-leading steel producer (after China and Japan). Employment in the steel industry fell from 521,000 in 1974 to 190,000 in 1992. The steel industry at the end of 2002 was operating at less than 65% of capacity, the lowest level in 14 years, and 50,300 steelmaking jobs had been lost from 1997–2002. Automobile manufacturing was an ailing industry in the 1980s, but rebounded in the 1990s. The "Big Three" US automakers—General Motors, Ford, and Daimler-Chrysler—manufactured over 60% of the passenger cars sold in the United States in 1995. Passenger car production, which had fallen from 7.1 million units in 1987 to 5.4 million in 1991, rose to 6.3 million by 1995 and to 8.3 million in 1999. In 2001, over 11.4 million automobiles were produced, an 11% decrease from the 12.8 million produced in 2000.

The United States has a total of 153 oil refineries, with a production capacity in 2002 of 16,785,000 barrels per day. Crude oil and refined petroleum products are crucial imports, however.

 

Agriculture

 

Technological advancement has accelerated changes in American agriculture. Farming is highly mechanized and commercialized, but at the same time it requires much investment. In productive terms the achievements of this sector of the economy are extraordinary. U. S. farmers produce enough food for domestic consumption and still supply 15% of the world's food need.

It should be noted that in the past 30 years agricultural lands have been concentrated in fewer and fewer hands as a result of the fact that large-scale specialized farms replaces small family farms.

However high efficiency and productivity of American agriculture has its negative side. On the one hand farming has become too productive to be profitable to many American farmers. Low crop prices, which have resulted from overproduction, often do not bring farmers enough income to live on. Another difficulty an American farmer faces is the decline of agricultural exports. The situation nowadays is that the share of the U. S. crops on the world's market is shrinking while the shares of the European community expand.

 

Foreign trade

 

Besides agricultural products the most part of the U. S. export occupy machinery, automotive products, aircraft and chemicals. The leading U. S. imports are petroleum products, food and beverages machinery, iron and steel products. The USA is the world's largest importer and exporter. Despite its huge domestic production, the economy of America depends heavily on foreign imports. Until recently the US exported more goods than it imported. However the present situation is the declining competitiveness of American goods in the world market first of all due to poor quality, which was indicated by the trade deficit, which is called in economic theory a negative balance of foreign trade. Foreign manufacturers are now selling about 50% inside the country more than Americans are exporting abroad.