Шпаргалка по "Возрастной психологии

2. Основные системы  отсчета, в которых психология описывает человеческий возраст: 1) индивидуальное развитие (онтогенез); 2) социально-возрастные процессы и социально-возрастная структура общества; 3) возрастной символизм.

3. В психологии в  пределах онтогенеза можно говорить  о биологическом, психологическом, социальном возрасте субъекта, а также о субъективном, переживаемом возрасте личности (возрастное самосознание).

4. Понятием возраста  объединяются два ряда развития, которые Л. С. Выготский назвал  натуральным (развитие организма) и социальным (приобщение индивида к культуре путем обучения воспитания, социализации в широком смысле слова).

5. Наиболее емкий и  употребительный современный научный  термин для описания индивидуального развития — «жизненный путь».

6. Современная наука  уделяет особенно много внимания проблеме качественных сдвигов, скачков, кризисов в развитии, с которыми соотносится смена возрастов.

Сравнение периодизаций психического развития.

9 первые  теории развития (аристотель, древнекитайская  переодизация)

Гиппократ, известный  греческий врач, и А                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                ристотель, который был по образования биолог и врач, одними из первых связали психологию с естествознанием. Эта связь упрочилась в период эллинизма в работах Галена, а в средневековый период в исследованиях многих арабских мыслителей, которые являлись не только философами и психологами, но и врачами, - Ибн Сины, Ибн аль - Хайсама и др.

   Аристотель,  считается,   в   сущности, основоположником психологии как  науки  о  душе.  В  трактате  «О  Душе»  он систематизировал существовавшие взгляды на природу психического,  выведя  на их основе собственную теорию.

Аристотель отвергает и  материалистические  учения  о  Душе  (душа  как разновидность материи) и  идеалистические  (душа–бестелесная  сущность).  По Аристотелю, душа связана с одной  стороны  с  материей,  с  другой–с  богом, т.о., психология занимает  средние  положение между физикой и теологией.

  Аристотелем  впервые в истории человеческой  жизни была выдвинута идея  о

неразделимости  души и живого тела. «Сказать что душа гневается,  равносильно тому, так если бы кто сказал, что душа  занимается  тканьем  или  постройкой дома» (1). Душа по Аристотелю, неотделима от тела,  она  представляет  собой нечто принадлежащее ему, а поэтому пребывает в соответствующем  ей  теле  (а не в разных). Как энтелехия тела, душа смертна  вместе  с  ним.

“Аристотель   открыл   новую   эпоху   в   понимании   души   как    предмет психологического знания.  Не физические тела и  не  бестелесные  идеи  стали для него источником этого знания ,  но  организм  где  телесное  и  духовное образуют нераздельную целостность “ (7)

    Человеческие  функции души (ум,  мышление,  рассуждение,  способность к умозрению), по мнению Аристотеля, составляют  совершенно  иной  род  души  и «только эти способности могут существовать отдельно, как вечное–отдельно  от преходящего». Аристотель замечает, правда, что еще не  ясно,  могут ли  они быть независимы от тела, но не находит оснований считать ум и соединенным  с телом, поскольку иначе он имел бы определенный  орган  и  обладал  какими-то качествами (например, мог бы быть теплым или холодным). Аристотель  отрицает существование телесного органа для мышления. Оно, по его  мнению,  автономно

и, в отличии от души бессмертно. Аристотель считал мир постоянно развивающимся, качественно изменяющимся, причем процесс развития совершается не под влиянием внешних сил, а как внутреннее развитие. Исходя из своей теории развития Аристотель говорил о трех сторонах души: растительной, которая проявляется в питании и размножении; животной, проявляющейся в ощущениях и желаниях; разумной, которой свойственно мышление и познание, а также способность подчинять себе растительное и животное начала.

Соответственно  трем сторонам души, каждая из которых  требует особого воздействия, Аристотель выделил три стороны воспитания — физическое, нравственное и умственное, составляющий одно целое.

Аристотель видел цель воспитания в гармоническом развитии всех сторон души, тесно связанных  природой, но особенно важным считал развитие высших сторон — разумной и волевой. При этом он полагал необходимым  следовать за природой и сочетать физическое, нравственное и умственное воспитание, а также учитывать возрастные особенности детей. Опираюсь на принятое . в народе деление времени соответственно, лунному календарю “по седмицам”, он разделил время воспитания, определив его, в 21 год, на три периода: от рождения до 7 лет, с 7 до 14 и с 14 до 21 года, указал на особенности каждого возраста, определил цели, содержание и методы воспитания в каждый период. Это была первая в истории педагогической мысли возрастная периодизация.

Большое внимание Аристотель уделял воспитанию в дошкольном возрасте. “Ко всему, к чему можно приучить ребенка, лучше приучить его непосредственно с пеленок”,— говорил он, причем утверждал, что до 7 лет дети должны воспитываться в семье. Следуя своему принципу природосообразности, Аристотель дал общую характеристику дошкольного возраста. До 7 лет, считал он, в детях преобладает растительная жизнь, поэтому надо в первую очередь развивать их организм. Главное для маленьких — питание, движение, закаливание. Дети должны заниматься подходящими их возрасту играми, им полезно слушать рассказы и сказки (непременно одобренные властями), детей следует обучать речи. С 5 лет родители должны готовить их к школе.

В 7 лет мальчики переходят  в государственные школы (женщинам, считал философ, не нужно давать такого образования, как мужчинам). Аристотель подчеркивал, что школы должны быть именно государственные, а не частные, потому что воспитание граждан — забота государственная: “Не следует... думать, будто каждый гражданин — сам по себе; нет, все граждане принадлежат государству, потому что каждый из них является частицей государства. А забота о каждой частице, естественно, должна иметь в виду попечение о всем целом, вместе взятом . В школах дети прежде всего попадают к учителям гимнастики, которые заботятся об их физическом воспитании. Кроме того, в школе дети обучаются чтению, письму, счету, рисованию и музыке.. В более старшем возрасте юноши изучают литературу, историю, философию, математику, астрономию. Музыке Аристотель придавал очень большое значение как средству воспитания и эстетического и нравственного.

Нравственное воспитание детей, по Аристотелю, основывается на упражнении в нравственных поступках  — частом повторении желательных  действий, в которых не должно быть крайностей, а наоборот, которые  должны быть продуманными и умеренными. Такое уравновешенное поведение можно считать добродетельным. Заниматься нравственным воспитанием детей должны главным образом родители.

Характерно, что, развивая свою педагогическую теорию, Аристотель как представитель рабовладельческой аристократии заботился в первую очередь о воспитании свободнорожденных граждан, о процветании рабовладельческого государства.

Взгляды Аристотеля оказали  большое влияние на античную педагогику и последующее развитие педагогической науки.

    Большое значение для развития психологии имеют исследования  Аристотеля в области гносеологии–теории познания. Философ исходит из мысли о  том,  что мир познаваем и существует объективно,  независимо  от  акта  познания;  мир первичен, а сознание вторично.

    Вопрос  о познаваемости мира  Аристотель  не  считает  дискуссионным. Сомнений в объективности познания у него, видимо нет. «Все люди  от  природы стремятся   к   знанию»–пишет   он   в   «Метафизике».    По   его   мнению, любознательность–свойство  людей  и  животных,  данное   им   от   рождения.

Аристотель убежден, что  мир человека и мироздание едины, а  формы  и  законы бытия и мышления в своей  сущности  тождественны  и  имеют  один  и  тот  же источник.

    Аристотель  опровергает точку зрения скептиков, то есть тех, кто «ничегоне принимает за истинное». Человеку не  все  равно,  что  с  ним  случиться: упадет ли он  в  колодезь  и  в  пропасть  или  нет,  он  все  же  проявляет осторожность. Значит, человек знает, что для него объективно  лучше, а что хуже. Значит, не все в одинаковой  мере  истинно.  «Дважды  два–пять»  более истинно,  чем «дважды два–тысяча». Эти «более» или «менее»,  по  Аристотелю,

существуют в  самой  природе  вещей.  А  если  одно  суждение  всегда  более истинно, чем другое, то тезис о том, что нет ничего истинного в том  смысле, что все одинаково ложно, опровергнут.

Древнекитайская классификация

Молодость                                                                           до 20 лет 

Возраст вступления в брак                                                до 30 лет 

Возраст выполнения общественных обязанностей        до 40 лет 

Познание собственных заблуждений                               до 50 лет

Последний период творческой жизни                              до 60 лет 

Желанный возраст                                                              до 70 лет 

Старость                                                                              от 70 лет

Ибн-Сина был также одним  из первых исследователей в области  возрастной психологии. Он изучал связь  между физическим развитием организма  и его психологическими особенностями  в различные возрастные периоды, придавая при этом важное значение воспитанию. Именно посредством воспитания осуществляется, по Ибн-Сине, воздействие психического на устойчивую структуру организма. Чувства, изменяющие течение физиологических процессов, возникают у ребенка в результате воздействия на него окружающих людей; вызывая у ребенка те или другие аффекты, взрослые формируют его натуру.

Физиологическая психология Ибн-Сины включала, таким образом, предположения  о возможности управлять процессами в организме и даже придавать организму определенный устойчивый склад путем воздействия на его чувственную, аффективную жизнь, зависящую от поведения других людей. Идея взаимосвязи психического и физиологического (не только зависимость психики от телесных состояний, но и ее способность - при аффектах, психических трав мах, деятельности воображения - глубоко влиять на них) разрабатывалась Ибн-Синой на основе его обширного медицинского опыта.