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2.Travelling (by Railway, Sea and Air)

(Lab.Workbook “Travelling by Air”, 2004)

Railways and Railroads

        The world's first railway along which passengers travelled on trains pulled by steam locomotives was opened in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in north-east England. By the early 1900s, when railways reached the height of their popularity, there were about 23000 miles (37000 kilometres) of railway track. Victorian engineers such as Isambard Kingdom Brunel designed bridges for the railway, and architects designed elaborate station buildings such as St Pancras in London.

        The railways played a vital role in Britain's industrial development during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Later, with the invention of the internal combustion engine (= the type of engine used in cars), road transport became more popular for both goods and passengers. In 1947 regional railway companies were nationalized and became British Rail (later BR), but following the Beeching report many lines (= routes) were closed in order to save money. In 1994 the government decided that BR should be returned to private ownership. Tracks and stations were made the responsibility of a company called Railtrack, while trains were once again operated by several companies on a regional basis. People have been encouraged to use trains and other forms of public transport to help reduce fuel consumption and pollution.

        The railway network connects all the major towns in Britain, and now, via the Shuttle, links Britain with France and Belgium. Railways are used for both short and long journeys, for commuting to work each day, and for transporting freight. Some routes are now electrified and have high-speed trains. Others still rely on diesel-powered locomotives. Some trains are old, dirty and overcrowded. They also have the reputation for being late, and jokes are often made about the excuses given for delays. These have included 'leaves on the line' in autumn, and 'the wrong kind of snow'. Tickets are quite expensive, although students and the elderly can get railcards which entitle them to cheaper fares.

        Most Americans have never been on a train. This is sad because the railroads, as they are generally called in the US, were the means by which the Old West was settled. Passenger trains today mainly serve commuters around large cities. The only major long-distance railway business is done by freight trains (BrE also goods trains).

        The first US rail company was the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1828, but its cars (BrE carriages) were pulled by horses. Steam power was used by the 1830s, and the Pullman car was invented in 1856. The Civil War led to the rapid development of railroads, and the nation was connected from east to west in 1869 when the Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific joined their tracks in Utah. The 20th century brought more powerful locomotives and huge stations, like Grand Central in New York. The greatest period of US railroads began in the middle of the 19th century and lasted about 100 years. This time has been celebrated with popular songs like I've Been Working on the Railroad, Freight Train Blues, John Henry, Chattanooga Choo-Choo, Orange Blossom Special and Casey Jones. Trains and railroad workers were also the subjects of many films and novels.

        After World War II car ownership greatly increased and people no longer used trains as a means of transport. Union Pacific, once known for its two-level 'dome lounge cars' from which passengers could see the scenery, stopped long-distance passenger services in 1971. Amtrak, a public company, now runs the California Zephyr, the Texas Eagle and other trains but it is not very successful in attracting passengers.

        Some Americans are train buffs and take special steam locomotive trips. Americans also collect model trains, some of which, including the heavy Lionel sets from the 1940s, are now valuable. In Britain old and young alike visit railway museums at e.g. Didcot and York. Trainspotting (= recording the names and registration numbers of locomotives) used to be a popular hobby, especially for boys, but is less common now.

Commuting

        Commuting is the practice of travelling a long distance to a town or city to work each day, and then travelling home again in the evening. The word commuting comes from commutation ticket, a US rail ticket for repeated journeys, called a season ticket in Britain. Regular travellers are called commuters.

        The US has many commuters. A few, mostly on the East Coast, commute by train or subway, but most depend on the car. Some leave home very early to avoid the traffic jams, and sleep in their cars until their office opens. Many people accept a long trip to work so that they can live in quiet bedroom communities away from the city, but another reason is ' white flight '. In the 1960s most cities began to desegregate their schools, so that there were no longer separate schools for white and black children. Many white families did not want to send their children to desegregated schools, so they moved to the suburbs, which have their own schools, and where, for various reasons, few black people live.

       Millions of people in Britain commute by car or train. Some spend two or three hours a day travelling, so that they and their families can live in suburbia or in the countryside. Cities are surrounded by commuter belts. Part of the commuter belt around London is called the stockbroker belt because it contains houses where rich business people live. Some places are becoming dormitory towns, because people sleep there but take little part in local activities.

       Most commuters travel to and from work at the same time, causing the morning and evening rush hours, when buses and trains are crowded and there are traffic jams on the roads. Commuters on trains rarely talk to each other and spend their journey reading, sleeping or using their mobile phones, though this is not popular with other passengers. Increasing numbers of people now work at home some days of the week, linked to their offices by computer, a practice called telecommuting.

        Cities in both Britain and the US are trying to reduce the number of cars coming into town each day. Some companies encourage car pooling (called car sharing in Britain), an arrangement for people who live and work near each other to travel together. Some US cities have a public service that helps such people to contact each other, and traffic lanes are reserved for car-pool vehicles. But cars and petrol/gas are cheap in the US, and many people prefer to drive alone because it gives them more freedom. In Britain many cities have park-and-ride schemes, car parks on the edge of the city from which buses take drivers into the centre.

Transport

        Most journeys in Britain and the US are made by road. Some of these are made on public transport (AmE public transportation) but most are by private car.

        In Britain many people rely on their car for daily local activities, e.g. getting to work, doing the shopping, and visiting friends. People living in urban areas may use buses, trains or, in London, the Underground, to get to city centres, mainly because traffic is often heavy and it is difficult to find anywhere to park a car. Some places in the country may have a bus only two or three times a week so people living there have no choice but to rely on their cars.

        In the US large cities have good public transportation systems. The El railroad in Chicago and the underground systems of New York, Boston, San Francisco and Washington, DC are heavily used. Elsewhere, most Americans prefer to use their cars. Families often have two cars and, outside major cities, have to drive fairly long distances to schools, offices, shops, banks, etc. Many college and even high-school students have their own cars.

        Long-distance travel in Britain is also mainly by road, though railways link most towns and cities. Most places are linked by motorways or other fast roads and many people prefer to drive at their own convenience rather than use a train, even though they may get stuck in a traffic jam. Long-distance coach / bus services are usually a cheaper alternative to trains, but they take longer and may be less comfortable. Some long-distance travel, especially that undertaken for business reasons, may be by air. There are regular flights between regional airports, as well as to and from London. A lot of freight is also distributed by road, though heavier items and raw materials often go by rail.

        In the US much long-distance travel is by air. America has two main long-distance bus companies, Greyhound and Trailways. Amtrak, the national network, provides rail services for passengers. Private railway companies such as Union Pacific now carry only freight, though in fact over 70% of freight goes by road.

        The main problems associated with road transport in both Britain and the US are traffic congestion and pollution. It is predicted that the number of cars on British roads will increase by a third within a few years, making both these problems worse. The British government would like more people to use public transport, but so far they have had little success in persuading people to give up their cars or to share rides with neighbours. Most people say that public transport is simply not good enough. Americans too have resisted government requests to share cars because it is less convenient and restricts their freedom. Petrol/gasolene is relatively cheap in the US and outside the major cities public transport is bad, so they see no reason to use their cars less.

        Despite the use of unleaded petrol/gasolene, exhaust emissions (= gases) from vehicles still cause air pollution which can have serious effects on health. The US was the first nation to require cars to be fitted with catalytic converters (= devices that reduce the amount of dangerous gases given off). Emissions are required to be below a certain level, and devices have been developed to check at the roadside that vehicles meet the requirement. Stricter controls are also being applied to lorries/trucks. Car manufacturers are now developing electric cars which will cause less pollution.

        The cheapest and most environmentally-friendly ways to travel are to walk or ride a bicycle. In Oxford and Cambridge bicycles are common, and many other cities now have special cycle routes or cycle lanes beside the main road. Elsewhere, there are so many cars on the roads that cycling can be dangerous. In the US bicycles are used mostly for fun or sport.

Roads and Road Signs

        The US road system is the largest in the world, mainly because of the long distances between cities. The distance between Boston and San Francisco, for instance, is more than 3000 miles (4827 kilometres). The US began to build the interstate highway system in 1956. By 1998 it had more than 42000 miles (67578 kilometres) of road and carried 21% of America's traffic. The interstate system greatly helped the country's economy, but it also hurt the economies of many small towns not on an interstate. Interstates running north to south have odd numbers and those going from east to west have even numbers. They often have only two or three lanes in each direction through the countryside but may have eight or more each way through cities. The New Jersey Turnpike, for instance, has 12 lanes each way near New York City.

        Other major roads in the US are called superhighways, freeways, expressways, thruways or parkways. There are also many county and local roads, called variously arterial roads, feeder roads or farm roads. Some states have tollways or turnpikes, on which drivers must pay a toll.

Interstate highways are marked with red and blue signs showing an 'I' followed by the road's number. Other US highways have red, white and blue signs. Some state roads, like those in Louisiana and Texas, have signs in the shape of the state. Since 1995 states have been able to set their own speed limits. This is usually 65 or 70 mph (105 or 112 kph) on interstate roads but lower on other main roads.

        In Britain the fastest and most direct routes between major cities are by motorways, which usually have three lanes of traffic in each direction and a speed limit of 70 mph (112 kph). Each motorway is identified by the letter 'M' and a number. Main roads other than motorways are called A-roads and are numbered A6, A34, etc. Some A-roads are dual carriageways with two or more lanes each way. Most A-roads now follow a bypass round towns. Narrower roads which have only one lane in each direction are called B-roads. Most roads have white lines and cats'-eyes (= lights sunk into the ground) down the middle. Only a very few roads have tolls. Narrow country roads below B-road standard may be known locally by the name of the place they go to, e.g. Orston Lane.

        In Britain the Highway Code describes the many signs placed beside roads. Red circular signs give instructions that must by law be obeyed. These include 'no overtaking' signs and signs about speed limits. Red triangular signs give warnings about possible dangers ahead, e.g. slippery roads. Direction signs to major towns are blue on motorways and green on other roads; signs to smaller places are white. Old-fashioned signposts can still be seen in some country areas.

        In the US red road signs, like 'Stop', must be obeyed. Signs that indicate danger, as in areas where rocks might fall, have a yellow diamond shape. Arrows indicating bends in the road are shown in green circles on white signs. Many other US road signs are now similar to those in Europe.

        In Britain there is pressure from both business and private road users for more and better roads, despite the damage to the environment and increase in pollution that this may cause. People who are against the building of new roads regularly challenge proposed routes of new motorways or bypasses. If they fail, environmentalists set up protest camps along the route of the new road. Recently, experts too have cast doubt on the wisdom of building more roads, saying it simply encourages greater use of cars. In the US there are few protests against road-building. People generally want more roads to make their journeys faster and more convenient.

How To Avoid Travelling

        Travel is the name of a modern disease which started in the mid-fifties and is still spreading. The patient grows restless in the early spring and starts rushing about from one travel agent to another collecting useless information about places he doesn’t intend to visit. When he, or usually she, will do a round of shops and spend much more than he or she can afford. Finally in August, the patient will board a plane, train, coach or car and go to foreign places along with thousands of his fellow-countrymen, not because he is interested in or attracted by some place, nor because he can afford to go but simply because he cannot afford not to. The result is that in the summer months (and in the last few years also during the winter season) everybody is on the move.

        What is the aim of all this travelling?

        Each nationality has its own different one. The Americans want to take photographs of themselves in different places. The idea is simply to collect documentary proof that they have been there. The German travels to check up on his guide-books. Why do the English travel? First, because their neighbour does. Secondly, they were taught that travel broadens the mind. But lastly – and perhaps mainly – they travel to avoid foreigners. I know many English people who travel in groups, stay in hotels where even the staff is English, eat roast beef and Yorkshire pudding on Sunday and steak-and-kidney pies on weekdays, all over Europe. The main aim of the Englishman abroad is to meet people, I mean, of course, nice English people from next door or from the next street. It is possible, however, that the mania for travelling is coming to an end. A Roman friend of mine told me:

        “I no longer travel at all. I stay here because I want to meet my friends from all over the world”. “What exactly do you mean?” I asked.

“It is simple”, he explained. “Whenever I go to London my friend Smith is in Tokyo and Brown is in Sicily. If I go to Paris my friends are either in London or in Spain. But if I stay in Rome all my friends, I’m sure, will turn up at one time or another. The world means people for me. I stay here because I want to see the world. Besides, staying at home broadens the mind”. (After G. Mikes).

What travels around the world but stays in the corner?

What goes quicker than the wind and the train?

What goes without moving from its place?

East or West , Home is Best!

Home, Sweet Home!