Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

Crime and law enforcement

When someone is arrested for committing an offence, he is taken to the police station for interrogation. If the police decide there is a case against him, he is charged with the offence, that is to say the police formally accuse him of committing it. After this, the accused appears before a magistrate who is empowered to decide what to do about minor cases. If the magistrate finds the accused guilty, he will sentence him to pay a fine, or some other minor punishment.

More serious cases are passed up to the Crown Court, where the accused is tried for the offence by a judge, and usually a jury. Very serious cases are heard in the high courts in London. The accused mayhave to wait a long time to stand trial. At the trial, the accused pleads guilty or not guilty. If he pleads not guilty, the jury, composed of 12 ordinary citizens, has to decide if he is guilty or not. This decision is called their verdict. The lawyers who try to persuade the jury are called barristers. In court, the one on the side of the accused is known as the Counsel for the Defense and the one against him is called the Counsel for the Prosecution. Each barrister calls witnesses to give evidence in support of his case. The witnesses can be cross-examined by the other counsel, who tries to persuade the jury that the evidence is untrue or not important.

When all the evidence has been heard, the judge sums up the case and explain legal points for the jury's benefit. The jury retires to another room, where they try to reach a verdict. If they find the accused guilty as charged, we say hi has been convicted of the offence. The judge then passes sentence. He may sentence the guilty person to pay a fine, to a number of years imprisonment, or to some other punishment. If the verdict is not guilty, we say the accused has been acquitted of the offence, and he goes free. If the accused feels there was something unfair about the trial, he may appeal to the Appeal Courts, where three judge's decide the case. So why do people commit crime or violence?

The first point that has to be clarified here is the meaning of the world violence. There are, after all, many types of violence in our cities, ranging from baby battering to the suppression of political demonstrations by police. What measures can be taken to combat this kind of violence? Well, to begin with, it is often argued that violent crime should be punished more severely. That is to say, more offenders sent to prison, longer prison sentences, and even the reintroduction of the death penalty. The first two ideas seem reasonable, but ignore the problem that our prisons are already full, and also that ex-prisoners are more likely to commit crime than other people. In addition, it is very expensive to keep people in prison. As for the death penalty, there is no hard evidence that it has any effect on the commission of the crimes. Punishing crime more severely, then, does not seem to work.

A more effective measure would be to improve the service provided by the police. More people would say that British policemen should carry guns, but I do not agree, since this would lead to more guns being used by thieves, and consequently more violence, probably involving innocent by-standers. Also, we must remember that not every policeman is psychologically fit to carry a gun. Nevertheless, certain changes can be made. Firstly, the size of the police force could be increased, by improving salaries and conditions. Equally importantly, the police should receive better training, so that they can deal effectively with trouble without becoming unduly violent themselves. Clearly, a large, well-trained police force must be an important factor in any attempt to tackle crime. The stress caused by just living in a modem city is an important factor in making people violent. This maybe true, but little can be done about it, since we can hardly all return to the countryside.

Street crime is mainly caused by the predicament of many young people on leaving school: that is to say, unemployed, with no money and with little hope for the future. No amount of punishment and no police force will deter young people from taking to a life of crime when the law-abiding life which is the alternative is empty of hope interest and achievement. The solution is clear. The government must ensure that jobs are provided for young people. Until young people have work, money and hope, it will be impossible to walk safely in the streets.

Climate & weather

Weather provides an ever popular topic of conversation with much guessing as to what the weather will be the next day or next week There is always something to say about it.

Weather is the specific condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It is measured in terms of such things as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. In most places, weather can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate is the average weather (usually taken over a 30-year time period) for a particular region and time period. Climate is not the same as weather, but rather, it is the average pattern of weather for a particular region. Weather describes the short-term state of the atmosphere. Climatic elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms, and other measures of the weather.

The earliest evidence of scientific activity in the field of meteorology, the study of the earth's atmosphere, especially as it relates to weather forecasting, is from the 4th cent. B.C.; Aristotle wrote what is probably the first treatise on the subject. The first attempt to chart weather from reports over a considerable area was made in 1820 in Europe by H. W. Brandes.

The central forecast office in the US is the National Meteorological Center (NMC), in Suitland; first-order stations are located chiefly in the larger cities, and numerous substations for special purposes (e.g., observing river stages, measuring depth of snow, and maintaining records of climate) are distributed throughout the country.

Devices used for meteorological observations include rockets, weather satellites, radiosondes, barometers, anemometers, thermometers, and radar. By means of high-speed telecommunications, information from all over the world is sent to the NMC, where the data is decoded and plotted. These data are used to create weather maps based on simultaneous weather observations at different atmospheric levels over any desired geographic region. On a typical map the various weather elements are shown by figures and symbols; isobars are drawn to show areas of low pressure (cyclones) and high pressure (anticyclones); fronts (boundaries between air masses) and areas of precipitation are indicated.

The major influence governing the climate of a region is its latitude. A broad latitudinal division of the earth's surface into climatic zones based on global winds includes the equatorial zone, or doldrums, characterized by high temperatures with small seasonal and diurnal change and heavy rainfall; the subtropical, including the trade-wind belts and the horse latitudes, a dry region with uniformly mild temperatures and little wind; the intermediate, the region of the prevailing westerlies that, because of several secondary influences, displays wide temperature ranges and marked change ability of weather; and the polar, a region of short summers and long winters, where the ground is generally perpetually frozen. The transitional climate between those of the subtropical and intermediate zones, known as the Mediterranean type, is found in areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea and on the west coasts of continents. It is characterized by mild temperatures with moderate winter rainfall under the influence of the moisture-laden prevailing westerlies and dry summers under the influence of the horse latitudes or the trade winds.

The climate of our region is very specific. Particular geographical position at the border of Eurasian continent and the Pacific Ocean grants unique nature and climate to this region-Prymorye is the farthest south-eastern region of Russia, situated in the East of Asia, between 42° and 48° North, 130° and 139° East, washed by waters of the Sea of Japan. Distance from the farthest northern point to the farthest southern point is about 900 km. The territory is about 1,659,000 sq km. The most part of the territory is occupied by the Sikhote-Alin mountains, covered with virgin taiga. This is a great natural arboretum, which contains one the richest and most unusual temperate forests of the world. In this mixed zone between taiga and subtropics southern species such as Amur tiger and Himalayan bear cohabit with northern species such as brown bear and lynx. The sea coast attracts with beautiful exotic sceneries of bays and uninhabited isles,, very reach of underwater life.

Monsoon climate is the evident characteristic of our region. Winters are short but frosty. Summers are cloudy, rains and cyclones are usual. Summer's maritime winds bring sudden storms that swell the rivers and streams. Winter temperatures are moderate and there is relatively little snow, but cold winds from the North often fill the air with icy chill. The most beautiful time of year is 'Golden Autumn', which begins in August and stretches into late October. Rain is rare, and the sea is warm at this time of year, when the beaches are swept by mild Asian breezes. Annual precipitation falling mainly in summer, especially during typhoons, is about 600-900 mm. Due to a cold current along the coastline, thick fogs are usually quite long. Vegetation period lasts from 120-130 days in the North to 160-200 days in the South.

The British often say: "Other countries have a climate; in England we have weather". The weather in GB is very changeable. The climate in GB is mild and temperate due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The best time of the year in Britain is spring. January and February are cold and damp. It tends to rain a lot even in summer. The wind can make it quite cold. The most unpleasant aspect of British weather is fog and smog.

The weather is a favorite conversational topic in England. Forecasts are disseminated by television, radio, telephone, newspapers, and the Internet. Detailed forecasts can usually be made only for a short future period (generally 48 hr or less). Forecasts for up to five days can usually predict departures from normal temperature and precipitation fairly well; longer-range predictions are more general and less accurate, being based on the known normal weather of the area. Mathematical models, particularly those run on supercomputers, have helped to understand weather changes, including general global circulation patterns, and how perturbations in the atmosphere and oceans effect the weather.

Art and Museums

London is one of the biggest world centres of culture and art. There are quite a number of different museums and art galleries there. The British Museum is one of the greatest and best known museums in the world, which was founded in 1753. There are eleven major departments in the museum, that contain many different antiquities.  There is also a notable collection of items from all the countries of Europe. The British Museum is also known for its library which is the greatest and most famous in Britain. Among other museums of London that attract visitors are the Natural History Museum, The Museum of British Transport, the Museum of London (opened in 1979) and Madame Tussaud's Museum of Waxworks.

The Natural History Museum is the home of the national collections of animals and plants, and of the minerals and rocks from which the earth is built up. It has a twofold function: to increase man's knowledge of the animal, plant and mineral kingdoms as an institution for scientific research, and, to read knowledge of natural history as widely as possible.

The best known art galleries of London are the National Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery and the Tate.

The National Gallery which is in Trafalgar Square, contains Britain's famous collection of pictures. It is also rich in paintings by such Italian masters as Raphael and Veronese, and contains pictures representing all European schools of art. Everyone can find some kind of picture to enjoy.

The idea of a national gallery lingered on and by the beginning of the nineteenth century was being seriously discussed. At last talk resulted in the foundation of the National Gallery. Sir George Beaumont, a collector and painter himself, was one of the most eager to see a national collection. He offered to bequeath the pictures from own collection, and by 1825 this offer was being publicly mentioned. That year the death of a rich merchant collector, John Angerstein, was the event which precipitated the talk on all sides into action. His death was followed by the news that his pictures were for sale, and offers from abroad had already been received. Representations were made to the Prime Minister. Lawrence wrote to Angerstein's son, begging him not to sell abroad. After some debate about price, the thirty- eight Angerstein pictures were obtained for the considerable sum. In Aprel, 1824, Parliament voted the money. On the 10^th of May the Gallery was opened to the public.

The National Portrait Gallery stands just behind the National Gallery. It contains portraits of British monarchs and authentic portraits of men and women who have contributed to its making.

The idea of the Tate Gallery took shape in 1890. In that year Henry Tate's gift of 65 paintings and 2 sculptures, almost all of them the work of Victorian contemporaries, was offered to the nation, but a gallery had still to be built to house them. When opened seven years later the Tate Gallery consisted of 8 rooms and was intended as a collection of contemporary British painting only. In the intervening years the scope of the collection has been transformed as well as enlarged. Instead of being a collection of nineteenth ~ century British painting it has become the national collection of British painting of all periods, in addition to this the national collection of modem foreign painting and of modem sculpture, both British and foreign. In scale the collection has grown beyond recognition. Instead of 70 works the collection has contains nearly four thousand British paintings and drawings, over three hundred modern foreign paintings, and over three hundred and sixty pieces of modem sculpture. The growth of the building has also been impressive: the eight original galleries built by Tate have now become 34, including the more than 300 foot long Sculpture Gallery, and The Tate is now the largest picture gallery in the British Commonwealth.

Although it is the finest and most representative collection there is of the British school, it has serious gaps. It contains, for instance, no first-class example of the work of  Stubbs. On the other hand there are certain masters which the Tate represents supremely well. The chief of these is Turner. By the greatest of all British painters the Gallery possesses more than 300 paintings and sketches. William Blake and G.F. Watts are particularly well represented.

Here are some other interesting museums and galleries of London: the Victoria and Albert Museum, which covers most, if not all, of the artistic activities of man, such as architecture and sculpture, ceramics, engraving, illustrations and design, metal work, painting, textiles and wood work. The Wallace Collection, a magnificent collection of pictures, furniture, armour and objects of art. The Science Museum, which exhibits machinery, scientific instruments and apparatus for scientific research and for educational purposes.

One of the places of interest most visitors to St. Petersburg want to see is the Hermitage State Museum. It's one of the most outstanding museums of the world culture and art. The Hermitage was founded in 1764. Originally the first paintings were housed in the Winter Palace. Later the other buildings: the Small Hermitage, the Old Hermitage and the New Hermitage were built. The Museum now occupies five buildings. The Hermitage contains art collections of all ages. There is the richest collection in the world of Oriental art and culture. There are wonderful collections from China, India, ancient Greece and Rome. West-European paintings are widely represented in the Hermitage too. The total number of paintings of the West-European masters is 7.5 thousand. They include world-famous works by Leonardo da Vincy, Raphael, Rembrand, Rubens and others. Special department of the museum are devoted to the history of culture and art of Russia. The Hermitage is also famous for its outstanding collections of applied art: tapestries, furniture, metal work, silver and jewelry.

Restaurant. Meals. Table Manners

We have 3 of 4 meals a day. Russian people have breakfast in the morning, dinner in the middle of the day and supper in the evening. In England meal-times are as follows: breakfast is between 7 &9 a.m., lunch time is between 12 and 2p.m., tea time is between 4& 5 p.m. and dinner (or supper) time is between 7 &9 p.m.

We may have our meals at home or at a canteen (a cafe, a restaurant). Before having our meal we must cook our food. There are different ways of cooking it: boiling, frying, roasting, stuffing.

Before having our meal we lay the table. We spread the table cloth and put on napkins. We take cups, glasses, saucers, spoons, forks and plates out of cupboard. Then we cut bread into slices and put them on a bread plate. We put some butter into a butter-dish and some salt into a salt-celler. When everything is ready the table is set and the soup is brought from the kitchen, we say "Dinner is ready" and the family sits down to table. If there is a visitor, he is served first.

At the table the hostess may say to the visitor: help yourself to smth or Would you care for another helping? When people are at the table , they may ask their neighbour for smth which they cannot easily reach themselves. In this case they say - may I trouble you for smth. When we get up from the table we clear the table and wash the dishes.

Sometimes we prefer to have our meals at the restaurants or cafes. It saves time and is more convenient for us. We choose dishes to our taste from the menu and either call the waiter or if it is a self-service department - take them ourselves and pay for them at the cash-desk. We may order all sorts of dishes: hors d'oeuvres, various soups,, meat or fish dishes, fruit, sweets and drinks. When we order smth we usually say: for the first course I'd have this, for the main course I'd take this. When the dinner is over, the waiter brings the bill and we pay for our meal.

Russian cuisine is famous all over the world. Russian national cuisine passed an extremely long way of development marked by several large stages which left an indelible traces.

In early times the quantity of dishes under the names was huge, but all of them under the contents differed one from another by little. In the beginning of 9-10 centuries Russian bread from sour (yeast) rye dough - uncrowned king on our table-has appeared. Various kashas also occupied large place in the menu, they were originally considered to be ritual solemn food. They are quite urgent even nowadays.

On cookery of 17 century strong influence was rendered by oriental, first of all Tatar kitchen. In this period Russian cuisine accepted the dishes from the unleavened dough - noodles, pelmeni, and also -raisin, dried apricots, figs, lemons and tea.

The Russian always used spices and seasonings , cooks skillfully combined them with fish, mushrooms, game, pies, soups, gingerbread, Easter cakes, they used them cautiously, but constant and indispensable. Since 17^th century people have begun to use spices, as well as salt and vinegar not during preparation of food but put them on the table because of high prices.

There are also many sweet teeth in Russia, they prefer various cookies, buns, wafers, pies and so on. Lots of people eat junk food such as hot dogs, pizzas, chips, sandwiches, hamburgers, and shakes.

Nobody in Russia can survive a day without tea or coffee. Boiled potatoes, vodka and herring are considered to be traditional dishes, partly it's true. To a less degree, than the soups, fish dishes saved the initial importance on Russian table.

In big cities we can find restaurants where foreign cuisine is served, but there are some special AutoCAD on suburbs where we can snack Armenian or Georgia cuisine, something like shashlik or shaurma. City fast food restaurants are also very popular.

Usually the Russian eat 3 times a day, but most of us snack all the time, but we try not to eat too late. We must remember that junk-food is harmful for our health. Junk-food diets may lead young people into crime and delinquency. British research has shown that poor quality foods and low level of vitamins can cause aggressive , anti-social behavior in young offenders. The iron vitamin, for example, is needed to produce the enzymes which keep down the body's adrenaline levels. Without those enzymes, excess adrenaline makes a person excitable and undisciplined. If someone goes without the proper vitamins all the time, their whole character may change.

Busy people prefer to buy freeze-dried or ready-made food to save time.

I would like to try English food because I know many humorous sayings about English food. E.g. Bernard Shaw said : If the English can survive their food, they can survive anything. George Mikes said:

On the Continent people have good food; in England people have good manners. Or one more saying:

English cooking? You just put things into boiling water and then take them out again after a long while. In London you can eat Thai, Portuguese, Japanese, Russian, Polish, Swiss, Spanish - but where are the English restaurants? The British have in fact always imported food from abroad. English kitchens, like the English language , absorbed ingredients from all over the world - chickens, rabbits, apples and tea. All of these and more were successfully incorporated into British dishes. However, World War II changed everything. Wartime women had to forget 600 years of British cooking, leam to do without foreign imports and ration their use of home-grown food. The Ministry of food published cheap, boring recipes. The joke of the war was a dish called Woolton pie (named after the Minister for Food). This consisted of a mixture of boiled vegetables covered in white sauce with mashed potato on the top. British never managed to recover from the wartime attitude to food. However, there is still one small ray of hope. British pubs are often the best places to eat well and cheaply in Britain. Their steak and mushroom pie, Lancashire hotpot, and bread and butter pudding are three of the gastronomic wonders of the world.

CLOTHES AND PERSON'S APPEARANCE

When we speak of somebody's appearance, we mean his (her) figure, hands, feet, hair, face. In describing the figure we often mention the build. A man or a woman may be: heavily built, delicately built, well-made. The figure may be: slender or stooping; thin or stout (fat, plump). Plump is mostly used when speaking about a very young person or about a woman. It is less derogatory to call a person stout than fat, as fat implies the idea of something unpleasant. Thick is used for objects and parts of the body, but not when speaking of the figure as a whole. A person may be: tall, short or middle-sized. When speaking of the appearance one should not forget the bearing which may be erect or stooping. The hand - which is at the very end of the arm - may be: small, large, delicate, bony, thin, and shapely. We have five fingers on each hand. This is what we call them: the forefinger (index finger), the middle finger, the ring finger, the little finger and the thumb. At the ends of the fingers are the nails. The fingers may be: fat, thick, thin, tapering. The leg - the part of the body from the hip to the ankle may be: short, long, fine, slender. A person may be bow-legged. The feet -- which are at the very end of the legs -- may be: small, large, flat, narrow, and pretty. We have five toes on each foot.