Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

14. Education

Education in Britain

        Education is a subject about which many British people care deeply. Most believe that the state should provide education free of charge and to a high standard. At election time, politicians who promise to spend more on education are popular with voters. Recently, there has been a lot of debate about students having to pay their own fees at university, as well as their living expenses. Some people are afraid that poorer students will not receive enough financial help and will be discouraged from going on to higher education.

The education system

        An increasing number of children under 5 receive pre-school education. Some go to playgroups several times a week and take part in structured play (= play with some educational purpose) with other children of the same age. Others go to a nursery school or to the nursery department or kindergarten of a school. The availability of pre-school education varies from area to area, and parents often have to pay for it.

        Children are required to be in full-time education between the ages of 5 and 16. Different areas of Britain have different school systems. In some areas children receive their primary education at an infant school and then a junior school, or at a primary school that combines the two. At about 11 they begin their secondary education at a comprehensive school, a grammar school or a high school. In other areas children go to a first school at age 5, a middle school at 8 and an upper school from 13 onwards. Some pupils, especially those hoping to go to university, stay at school for the sixth form or go to a sixth-form college.

        Most children go to state schools. Until 1988 these were all responsible to a Local Education Authority (LEA). LEAs obtain their funding from central government and the council tax. In 1988 secondary schools and larger primary schools were encouraged to opt out of LEA control and become grant-maintained. These schools receive money direct from central government are run by a board of governors consisting of parents and members of the public. In Scotland and Northern Ireland most schools are still managed by local authorities.

        Some children go to independent schools run by private organizations, for which their parents have to pay fees. A few go to public schools, such as Eton and Harrow. Younger children may attend a private preparatory school (or prep school) until the age of 13. Some parents may send their children to private schools, even if this is against their principles, because they think that their children will receive a better education.

        Young people are expected to show respect for their teachers and obey school rules. Pupils who misbehave may be punished, e.g. by having to stay behind after school. Corporal punishment, being smacked or caned, was ended many years ago. Sometimes students get into more serious trouble, e.g. by being violent or through using drugs, and risk being expelled (=told to leave permanently).

        The British education system aims to educate the whole person, so that each child develops his or her personality as well as gaining academic knowledge. Most primary and secondary schools offer a range of extra-curricular activities (=activities outside normal lessons), including sports, music, community service and trips to places of interest. Secondary schools also give careers advice and help students to prepare for having a job by arranging short periods of work experience with local businesses.

Standards in education

        Since 1988 the subjects to be taught in state schools have been laid down in the National Curriculum, which also sets the standards to be achieved. Children have to study the core subjects of English, mathematics and science, and also the foundation subjects of technology, geography, history, art, music and physical education. Older children take a foreign language. The National Curriculum does not apply in Scotland, and schools there are free to decide how much time they devote to each subject. Children do standard assessment tests (SATs) at ages 7, 11 and 14. At 16 students take exams for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) or the Scottish Certificate of Education. Some may take GNVQs (General National Vocational Qualifications) in work-related subjects. Some students go on to study for A levels in three or four subjects.

        Many people worry that the education system fails to make sure that all children reach minimum standards of literacy (= reading and writing) and numeracy (= number skills), and there are often demands for more attention to be paid to the three R's (reading, writing and arithmetic). Standards at individual schools are watched closely by parents and the government. Schools are visited regularly by OFSTED inspectors, and schools whose pupils are not making adequate progress or in which discipline is poor risk being closed down. School performance tables are published annually to show how well students in individual schools have done in tests and exams. These 'league tables' enable parents to compare one school with another, but many people feel that it is unfair to base a comparison on exam results alone.

        Educational standards are often said to be falling. This usually happens after GCSE and A level results are announced: if there are a lot of students with high grades people say that the exams are too easy. Others think that standards are rising and that it is now much harder to achieve good grades.

Further and higher education

        A smaller percentage of British students go on to further or higher education than in any other European country. Many students go to university and study for a bachelor's degree. Others study for a certificate or diploma at a college of further education. Most courses at these colleges train people in a particular skill and combine periods of study with work experience.

        Some people return to education later in life and attend evening classes run by adult education institutes. Open learning schemes enable people to obtain recognized qualifications, such as a degree from the Open University or a qualification in accountancy, without having to leave their job.

                                                 *        *        *

Further education in Britain means education after GCSE and GNVQ exams taken around the age of 16. It includes courses of study leading to A levels which students take at their school or sixth-form college. Some students go straight to a college of further education which offers a wider range of full- and part-time courses. Further education also includes training for professional qualifications in nursing, accountancy and management, and in fields such as art and music. The term higher education is used to refer to degree courses at universities.

       In the US further education usually means any education after secondary school. It can mean study at college or university, or any study towards a professional qualification. Americans may also use the term higher education to mean post-secondary education, and further education can have a meaning similar to that of adult education or continuing education, e.g. something that people do after completing their main education, often for personal interest and satisfaction.

        Many students in Britain take vocational training courses in fields such as building, engineering, hairdressing or secretarial skills. Colleges of further education offer courses leading to NVQs and other certificates and diplomas. Work-related courses are designed with advice from industry, with the aim of producing students who will have the skills employers require. On longer courses students may do placements (= periods of work) lasting several months with companies. On other courses, called sandwich courses, students divide their time between periods of paid work and periods of study. A common arrangement is for students to get day release from their work to attend college one or two days a week over several years. Some students do a formal modern apprenticeship, learning their skills on the job and attending college part-time.

        The British government is keen to persuade more young people to remain in education as long as possible in order to build up a more highly skilled, better educated workforce. Over 700000 people take part-time further education courses at around 500 institutions, while another 700000 are accepted as full-time and sandwich course students.

Open Learning

        Some adults who do not go to college or university when they leave school may wish to do so later in life but find they cannot because of work or family commitments or lack of money. Open learning schemes enable people to take educational courses at any level through part-time study at home when it is convenient for them. Open learning is sometimes called distance learning, because most students do not go to an educational institution for classes but study in their own home.

        At an informal level, open learning may include learning a language through watching television programmes and studying an associated coursebook. Open learning leading to A levels, professional qualifications and degrees, is often based on correspondence courses, though such courses existed before the term open learning became popular in the 1970s. Students taking correspondence courses receive printed materials through the post and send essays to a tutor to be marked. On other postal courses students receive all the course material at once and work through it entirely by themselves. Some courses are now offered through the Internet or by subscription to a series of television programmes. Although students have to pay to do the courses the total cost is much less than if they were to give up work to study full-time.

        The best-known open learning institution is the Open University (OU), which was founded in 1969. It accepts students from Britain and from other countries in the European Union. Students can be of any age and, if they do not have the standard qualifications for entering university, they take an access course before starting their degree. Teaching is by a mixture of printed materials, and television and radio programmes. Students study at home and post their work to their tutors. Many go to monthly tutorials at study centres in their home town, and they may also attend summer schools. Most students take part-time degree courses lasting four or five years, though there is no time limit. Postgraduate and professional courses are also offered. By the mid 1990s the OU had around 200000 students and its success has led to similar organizations being set up in other parts of the world.

        Although the US has no national institution like the Open University, the principle that further education should be open to everyone is widely accepted and there are many opportunities. Many universities and colleges operate correspondence courses, and most, especially those run by state governments, have some means by which interested people can study at the university.

Oxbridge

        Oxbridge is a word made from the names Oxford and Cambridge and is used to refer informally to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge together, especially when they are being distinguished from other universities.

        Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest universities in Britain. They are generally also thought to be the best universities to get a place at. An Oxbridge degree makes a good impression with many employers, and graduates of these universities may have an advantage when applying for jobs, e.g. in the Civil Service. Although efforts are being made to attract more students from state schools, many of the 14000 undergraduates at each university have been educated at public schools. The upper class have traditionally sent their children to Oxbridge, and many prime ministers and politicians went there. To many people, Oxford and Cambridge seem very remote places where only the very privileged can go.

        Students at Oxford and Cambridge must be accepted at one of the 30 semi-independent colleges. They used to have to sit an entrance exam and many still take an exam if they want to get a scholarship or an exhibition. Others have to sit special exams in addition to *A levels. Each college has its own teaching and research staff, called Fellows, and its own buildings, including hall (= a dining hall), a library, a chapel, and rooms for students to live in during the term. The buildings are often arranged round a quad (= square). Until the 1970s colleges were single-sex, but now almost all are mixed. The universities provide other facilities centrally, including laboratories, lecture rooms and libraries.

       The teaching system is different from that at most other universities. Students have tutorials, called supervisions at Cambridge, at which they read their essays to their tutor, a Fellow who is a specialist in what they are studying. There are usually no more than two or three students at a tutorial. Students also go to lectures that are arranged by the university and open to all students. Terms are short and intense, and students are expected to prepare for them in the vacations. Final examinations at Oxford are called schools, and at Cambridge the tripos. Undergraduates at Oxford and Cambridge study for a BA degree, but after a period of time graduates can convert their BA to an MA (Oxon) or an MA (Cantab) without doing any further study. Oxon is short for Oxoniensis, and Cantab for Cantabrigiensis, Latin for 'of Oxford' and 'of Cambridge'.

        At Oxford students sometimes have to wear gowns, at dinner or when they go to see the college principal. When they sit examinations or go to a degree ceremony they have to wear academic dress. This consists of subfusc, a black suit or skirt, black shoes and socks or tights, a white shirt or blouse and a black tie. Women also have to wear a tie or ribbon. On top they wear their gown and a mortar board (= a black hat with a flat, square top) and, when they graduate, a hood that shows their status. At Cambridge students only have to wear gowns when they matriculate (= become members of the university) and at graduation.

        The two universities are academic rivals, and rivals also in debating and sport. The Boat Race, held each year around Easter, attracts national attention. Rugby and cricket teams play against each other in varsity matches, as well as against professional sides.

Public Schools

        Public schools are, in most of Britain, independent schools and, despite their name, are not part of the state education system. Schools run by the state are called state schools. In Scotland however, which has a separate education system from the rest of Britain, the term public school refers to a state school. Only about 10% of children attend independent public schools, and their parents have to pay fees that may amount to several thousand pounds a year. A small number of children from less wealthy families win scholarships, in which case their fees are paid for them.

        Many of Britain's 200 public schools are very old. They include Eton, Harrow, Winchester and, for girls, Cheltenham Ladies' College and Roedean. Public schools were originally grammar schools which offered free education to the public and were under public management. This was in contrast to private schools which were privately owned by the teachers. Since the 19th century, the term public school has been applied to grammar schools that began taking fee-paying pupils as well as children paid for from public funds.

        Most pupils go to public school at the age of 13, after attending private prep schools. The majority of public schools are boarding schools where students live during term-time. Most have a house system, with boarders living in one of several houses under the charge of a housemaster. In a few schools younger pupils have to do small jobs for the senior pupils. This is sometimes called fagging.

        Public schools aim for high academic standards and to provide pupils with the right social background for top jobs in the Establishment. A much higher proportion of students from public schools win university places, especially to Oxford and Cambridge Universities, than from state schools. Former public school students may also have an advantage when applying for jobs because of the ' old school tie ', the old boy network through which a former public school pupil is more likely to give a job to somebody from a public school, especially his own public school, than to someone from a school in the state system. Some people send their children to public school mainly for this reason; others believe public schools provide a better education than state schools. Public schools have at various times also been associated with strict discipline, bullying and occasionally homosexuality.

        In the US a public school is a school run by the government. Schools that students have to pay to attend are called private schools. There are many private schools in the US, some of which are boarding schools. Some, like Phillips Exeter Academy and the Bath Academy, are very similar to Britain's public schools. They are very expensive, have a high reputation, and many of their students come from rich and well-known families. Children often go to the same school as their parents. Many of the most famous schools of this sort are in New England.

        Some US private schools give special attention to a particular area of study. There are, for example, schools for people who are good at music or art. Military schools are often chosen by parents who are in the armed forces, or who think their children need a lot of discipline. Religious groups also run private schools, although not all of the students who attend practise that religion. Schools run by the Catholic church are called parochial schools.

        Private schools in the US are often single-sex and their students usually wear a uniform. This is unusual in public schools. Parents choose a private school for their children for a number of reasons, but in general they believe that the quality of education is higher in private schools, and there is some evidence to support this. Most private schools offer scholarships to students from poorer families, and in some parts of the US the government may under certain circumstances pay for children to attend a private school.

Adult Education

        Adult education, sometimes called continuing education, includes courses of general interest at all levels, vocational training for jobs in industry, and academic study for a degree.

In Britain most general interest courses are part-time and commonly consist of evening classes held once a week at local colleges, schools and community centres. Some classes are also held during the day. Courses offered include both academic and recreational subjects, e.g. Spanish, local history, yoga and pottery. Students have to pay, but people who are unemployed may get a reduction or go free. Most classes are organized by local adult education institutes or by the Workers' Educational Association. There are about 1500 centres for adult education in Britain. Some universities also have a department of continuing education, which runs courses and organizes residential summer schools. In the mid 1990s about 1.6 million people, of whom 70% were women, attended evening classes.

        Some people return to college as mature students and take full- or part-time training courses in a skill that will help them to get a job. The development of open learning, the opportunity to study when it is convenient for the student, has increased the opportunities available to many people. This type of study was formerly restricted to book-based learning and correspondence courses but now includes courses on television, CD-ROM or the Internet, and self-access courses at language or computer centres.

        Americans believe that education is important at all stages of life and does not always stop when people get their first job. About 40% of adults take part in some kind of formal education. About half of them are trying to get qualifications and skills to help them with their jobs, the rest are taking recreational subjects for personal satisfaction. Schools and community colleges arrange evening classes, and a catalog of courses is published by local boards of education.

        Many US universities have a department of continuing education. State universities often allow anyone who wants to attend classes to do so, whether or not they are working towards a degree. Adults who never completed secondary school have a chance to take an equivalency exam, and if they pass they get a certificate saying that they have the same level of education as somebody who has finished high school.

Education in the US

The government and education

  Although in general Americans prefer to limit the influence of government, this is not so where education is concerned. All levels of government are involved in education and it is considered to be one of their most important responsibilities.

        The federal government provides some money for education through the Department of Education. But state and local governments have direct control and are responsible for the education of students between the ages of 5 and 18, or the years of school called kindergarten, first grade, second grade, etc. to twelfth grade. These years are together referred to as K12. Individual states have their own Boards of Education, which decide the curriculum (= subjects to be studied) and what students must have achieved before they can graduate from high school at the age of 18. States are also concerned with certification standards, general standards of education including the qualifications needed by teachers.

        Most of the money for education comes from taxes that people pay to their local government. Local governments appoint school boards, which have control over how individual schools are run. A school board hires a superintendent, the person in charge of all the schools in a school district, principals for each school, and teachers. It also decides how the rest of the money available should be spent. School boards are usually made up of people who live in the area, often parents of children in the schools.

        At the primary and secondary levels, most school districts have a Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) which gives all parents a chance to take part in making decisions about how the school is run. Parents regularly visit schools to meet their children's teachers and discuss their progress. Many volunteer (= work without pay) in their children's schools to teach the children a skill, take them on trips, or work in the school library.

The school system

        Although many Americans attend nursery school, day care or pre-school from an early age, formal education is usually considered to begin at the age of 5 when children go to kindergarten, the first step in the K12 education. Kindergarten and the next five or six years of education, first grade, second grade, etc., are together usually called elementary school (the term primary school is less common in the US than in Britain). Grades seven to twelve are part of secondary school, and may be divided in different ways. In some places grades seven and eight are called junior high school. Other school systems have middle school, which lasts for three years. High school usually covers four years, from the ninth to the twelfth grades.

        Post-secondary education, after twelfth grade, is not free though state governments which run most of the educational institutions subsidize the cost for people who live in the state.

The quality of education

        By some standards, American education seems very successful. Although young people must attend school until they are 16, over 80% continue until they are 18. About 45% of Americans have some post-secondary or further education, and over 20% graduate from a college or university.