Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

10.Ecology and Environmental problems.

     Ecology is a science which studies the relationship between all forms of life on our planet and the environment. This word came from “oikos” which means home.  The idea of home includes our home planet, its population, nature,,animals,birds,fish,

insets and all other living creatures and even the atmosphere around our planet. Since ancient times nature has served man giving everything he needs: air to breath, food to eat, water to drink, wood to building and fuel for heating his home. For thousands of years people lived in harmony with the environment and it seemed to them the recourses of nature had no end or limit. With the industrial revolution our negative influence on nature began to increase. Large cities with thousands of steaming, polluting plants and factories, can be found nowadays all over the world. The by-products of their activity pollute the air we breathe, the fields where our crops are grown.

    Now millions of chimneys,cars,buses,trucks all over the world exhaust fumes and harmful substances get into the at the atmosphere. Everything there is covered with soot and dirt.

Big cities suffer from smog. Cars with their engine have become the main source of pollution in industries countries. The loss of the forests upsets the oxygen balance of the new wastelands. As the results some species  of animals,birds,fish and plants have disappeared and keep disappearing.  Water pollution is very serious, too. Ugly rivers of dirty water polluted with factory waste, poisoned fish are all-round us. And polluted air and poisoned water lead to the end of the civilization. So, nowadays a lot of lands and lifeless areas have appeared. Because our actions and dealing can turn the land to a dessert.

    The groups of people (Greenpeace) with a common interest in trying to draw the public attention to environment problems, to influence the government decisions. They started functioning in 1971(at Amsterdam), they operates in 25 countries worldwide. The aim of Greenpeace is to protect wildlife of toxic wastes, nuclear tests.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.Tourism. Hotel.

     Nowadays people travel on business and as tourists much more than in the past. If u don’t want to be disappointed, it’s advisable to book accommodation beforehand by tel. or cable, particularly if u are visiting the city in summer.

Most hotels offer single room, double rooms or suits. Rooms in most of them are with all modern conveniences :air conditioning, a private bath room, tel., a video player and others. The service is usually quite satisfactory.

In the lobby of a hotel there is a registration, or front desk where guests check and out, pick up and deposit keys, and so on. The check-in procedure takes a few minutes. The guest is given a registration card to fill out: the name and address, the passport number for foreign nationals.  Service is supposed to begin at the door. The doorman is stationed at the entrance to the hotel and assists the guests in and out of taxis and cars, calls for cabs.

When u are through the formalities, u will get the key to your room and a pageboy (bellboy in Am.) will help u with your luggage and take u up to your room in a lift. He can also errands for u. For each service he will expect a tip.

If u want to have your suit pressed or dry-cleaned, your shirt ironed, or your laundry done, you should ring for the maid. In the lobby there are  a lot of offices: a booking office, post and telegraph offices, an information desk.

At the infor. Desk u can get to know about the departures and arrivals of trains and flights. In the booking office they can book for u seats at the theatre  or on the plane, or hotel accommodation in another city.

Bills a usually paid at weekly intervals, as it is more convenient for  the management. Besides cash, credit cards are universally accepted. Many hotels require their guests to produce a credit card when registering. The guests may also pay with traveler’s checks when checking out. The guests intending to leave the hotel should notify the clerk.

When leaving the hotel, it is customary to tip the attendance. The tip is always given with a word of thanks.

Hospitality is of greatest importance for a hotel.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

18.At a meeting

    Meetings are necessary. Meetings are held to discuss business, to explore ideas and to convey information. Preparation is essential. Identify the specific items that u want the meeting to consider. Arrange them in sequence in the agenda, allocating a certain amount of time to each, and giving priority to those that are important.

   Begin the meeting by standing its purpose. Everyone should have a clear understanding of why its being held.

As u approach each item on the agenda briefly introduce it. Keep the discussion relevant. Don’t allow people to jump ahead to the next item or go to back to points that have already been dealt with. After each item has been discussed, briefly summarize the conclusions that have been reached. At the end of meeting give an overall summary.

Begin the meeting on time. Don’t wait for latecomers. Avoid answering questions. Try not to get involved in arguments.

Finally, finish the meeting on time. Remind participants that there is a limited amount of time left, to keep their final contributions as brief as possible.

An agenda informs people attending the meeting of the meeting’s purpose. Any agenda must include the date of the meeting. The agenda for a short-in house meeting may simply list numbered topics to be discussed. The agenda for a longer meeting may be broken down into days and hours and include sites of individual sessions.

The minutes of a meeting are a written record of the business discussed and transacted at the meeting. Some companies tape record their meetings, and the tapes are transcribed and summarized.

Read the agenda before the meeting and keep it with u to serve as a guide. Make sure u know the names of all people who might speak. Sit close to the chairperson so that u are near the center of business.

Soon after the meeting adjourns, transcribe your notes into a first draft.. Organize the draft by topic or time sequence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7.Shopping centers and supermarkets have become very popular all over the world. They have various departments or shops under one roof in one huge building. The shopping centers are very convenient for the customers. These spacious stores and supermarkets are well-stocked with a lot of beautifully-arranged goods. There you can buy practically all you need in the way of foods – groceries, meat, vegetables, fruit, dairy products,  bread and cakes, baby foods and many other things. The goods are ready packed and have clearly-marked prices on them; they are displayed on shelves, in reach-in refrigerator units or in trolleys and are always within easy reach for the customers. Many factors can explain the popularity of such shops: first of all they have an excellent assortment of goods; secondly, you have an opportunity to choose the goods you like – they are displayed openly for you to choose them; then, the service is swift there; you save a lot of your precious time if you buy everything in one shop, under one roof; and, which is also of great importance, you save your money, because large supermarket buy a lot of products on cheap, wholesale prices, and they sell them cheaper. Supermarkets are the self-serviced shops. People take special basket, go alone the aisles and put into the basket everything they want. When the shoppers choose the food, they need to come to the cashier. He scanners the prices with special device and gives the bill.

      At the confectionery counter you can buy all sorts of sweets, chocolates, cakes, fancy cakes etc. The bakery counter is well stocked with fresh white and brown bread, rings, rolls, buns, rusts etc. After that we come to the grocery department where you buy flour, cereal, tea, spices, sugar. Everything is sold ready-packed. Vegetable oils are sold ready-bottled. There is also a big dairy counter with a good variety of dairy products: sweet or salted, fresh butter, margarine, eggs, cheese, soft (cottage) cheese, bottled and loose milk, cream, sour cream.

At the greengrocery department you can buy potatoes, carrots, onions, cabbage, green peas, beetroot etc. If you want some fruits you can go to the fruit counter The household department sells things for your home from nails to gardening-tools, and labor-saving devices for the home.

         Nowadays we can buy a lot of things either for cash or on hire-purchase, that is the customer pays the deposit on the goods and pays off the balance in installments. Payment may be spread over the period of two years. This hire-purchase system helps people to buy such expensive things

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

17.Prejudies. Totalitarian Religious Cults.

   Superstitions are beliefs that certain things or events will bring good or bad luck. Many people believe that luck plays an important part in their lives, and they wish somebody luck (=good luck) in many situations, e.g. before an exam or when they get married.

   There are many well-known omens (=signs) of bad luck, some of which have a religious origin. The number 13 is considered unlucky because there were 13 people at the Last Supper. Tall buildings often do not have a 13th floor;

     All of us have some across prejudices. But there are some groups of people who often suffer from prejudices. For example, colored people, old people whose behavior and habits are not like ours, couples where a woman is older than a man or couples with big difference in age (when husband is 50 and a wife is 20).

There are a lot of people in world who have racial prejudies. They don’t like people of other nations, and always think that their nations are more clever, more intelligent, and more important than others. So they treat people of the other race like dogs. They can even use them like slaves.

Smth. Like that happens to Chinese when they come to America to work. Sometimes people think that America is a free country with equal rights. But it is a mistake. China is a rather small country for so many people who live and work there. So they always have problems with places for living and work places. In America the Chinatown has always been a heaven for illegals and sweatshops but things have taken a very bad turn. The Chinese can’t earn a living because it’s common for sweatshops to withhold salaries from workers who have no government agency to turn to for help and anyone who complains about wages and conditions will be deported. They break they lives, because they can’t earn a living, can’t demand other work and living conditions and they can’t earn enough to come back to China. They can’t change anything.

There were statues and busts of Mao  in every Chinese town. Mao’s face was in every institution, Mao’s red books of citations on sale in every hotel and museum. This was the extreme of his socialism, of his total central control of all life by party and state, of the cult of personality he founded.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

12.Clothes and Person’s Appearance

Fashion begins in the international world of haute couture (= high fashion), led by top fashion designers and fashion houses. There is great public interest in fashion shows, when the latest styles are worn on the catwalk by highly-paid supermodels, even though few ordinary people expect to wear such clothes. Fashion magazines such as Vogue and television programmes such as The Clothes Show show the latest styles.

        Only a few people can afford to buy designer label clothing even though here are now more young designers and less expensive labels. The most popular designers include Giorgio Armani, Hugo Boss, Donna Karan, Calvin Klein, Karl Lagerfeld, Ralph Lauren and Yves Saint-Laurent. Famous British designers include John Galliano and Vivienne Westwood.

        Design ideas from fashion shows are quickly copied at more affordable prices. New ranges of clothing reach shops in time for each new season. As well as department stores and fashion stores, people buy clothes in markets and from mail-order catalogues. Many people, men as well as women, spend a lot of time shopping for clothes.

        High-street fashion is aimed mainly at young women because they are most fashion-conscious. New colours, designs and fabrics create the latest look or style. Recently, shiny fabrics and clingy, Lycra-based materials in black, grey and dark red have been used for strappy party dresses and close-fitting tops. Black is a fashion colour, and many young women wear black most of the time. Long plain black dresses are especially popular.

        Hemlines  vary from year to year. Skirts below the knee were fashionable in the 1990s, though miniskirts, popular in the 1960s, also reappeared. Smart shoes have high heels and wedges, but many people wear more practical shoes such as trainers or Doc Marten's if they have to walk far.

        Grunge, a style of the early 1990s, was based on loose-fitting layers of clothes, often torn or with holes in, and heavy shoes. Jeans remain popular with both men and women.

Fashion is not just about clothes. A person's figure is important, as well as their hairstyle, make-up and accessories. Fashion models are usually thin, and it is often difficult for overweight people to buy fashionable clothes, so many people try to diet to improve their figure.

Some men wear a single earring. Younger people may wear several earrings in one ear, or try body piercing and wear rings in the nose or navel.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

13.Sports. Fitness

     he British are very fond of sport, but many people prefer to watch rather than take part. Many go to watch football, cricket, etc. at the ground, but many more sit at home and watch sport on television.

Lack of exercise combined with eating too many fatty and sugary foods has meant that many people are becoming too fat). Experts are particularly concerned that children spend a lot of their free time watching television or playing computer games instead of being physically active. In Britain most towns have an amateur football and cricket team, and people also have opportunities to play sports such as tennis and golf. Other people keep themselves fit by walking or cycling. Local sports centers are generally cheaper. Evening classes are also cheap and offer a wide variety of fitness activities ranging from yoga to jazz dancing.

Sports play an important part in American life. There is even a 'dancing through pregnancy' programme. Many richer Americans employ their own personal trainer, either at home or at a fitness centre, to direct their exercise programme.

        The main field sports in Britain are hunting, shooting and fishing. Foxhunting. Staghunting        Shooting game birds, such as pheasant and grouse

Fishing, often called angling, is a very popular sport, mostly among men.

There are three main kinds of angling: fly-fishing, coarse fishing and sea-fishing. Fly-fishing, which is expensive, is fishing for salmon, trout, using specially disguised hooks. On the coast people may fish with a rod and line from a boat or from the shore.

Darts is a popular indoor game, often played in British pubs and working men's clubs. In the US darts is a popular game in bars.

6.Post-office. Telecommunications

The post office runs some services. U can buy stamps, postcards, envelopes, send a telegram or post a letter from it, and cash a money order.

If u want to buy, to send or to receive smth. U must go to the right counter (Poste Restante, Parcel Post, Post Cards, Registered Letters, Book Post, etc). If u want to send a letter, u have to put it into an envelope, write the address and then go to the window “Registered Letter”, hand the letter to the clerk, who weighs on the scales and give u necessary stamps. The amount that u have to pay depends on the weight of the letter and distance. U can post an ordinary stamped letter or registered letter. If u post an ordinary letter u can drop it into the nearest pillar-box. (send parcels insured and otherwise). When sending a letter of particular value, u should have it registered (it will be delivered personally).  The sender is given a receipt, so he calls always trace the letter. The Poste Restante window keeps mail until called for (who prefer to pick up their mail in person).

The important thing when making out a money order is to write legibly. U may subscribe to magazines.

There are 3 types of telegram service: ordinary, urgent, express. U can send reply-paid tel. In the USA u will find Night (when the wires are least busy – there is a reduced charge for this form of service) and Day  Letter(is sent off immediately)  telegraph message. As u pay for the word it is advisable to use a special telegraph language which is known as “telegraphese”: prepositions and articles are omitted.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.At  the Customs house

The procedure of passing the customs is almost the same in every country. The moment a traveler crosses the border his luggage is taken to the customs house by porters. Every country has its own customs regulations, which stipulate what articles are liable to duty and what are duty-free. Sometimes an article, which falls under customs restrictions and is liable to duty, is allowed in duty-free if the traveler does not exceed a certain fixed quota. These are listed in a duty-free quota list. Customs restrictions also include a prohibited article list. This is a list of interns, which may not be brought into a country or taken out of it. An official paper (from the proper authorities) giving permission to take items, which fall under special customs restrictions, in or out of a country is known as an import or export license.

If the traveler has any item, which comes under customs restrictions, he is asked to declare it. That is, he is asked to name the item, stating its value and other particulars. The declaration is made either orally or in writing on a special form. The practice seems to vary in different countries. Upon payment of duty the traveler is given a receipt. As a rule personal items are duty-free.

It sometimes happens that a passenger's luggage is carefully one through in order to prevent smuggling.

The formalities at file customs house usually take some time. Only after passing through the customs (Only when one's luggage has been cleared by the customs) does one realize that his journey is drawing to an end (or beginning, as the case might be). Though the procedure of passing customs in different countries is almost the same, the customs rules and regulations can differ a lot. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

16.Public and private health service

The United States today has evolved a mixed system of private and government responsibility for health care. Workers with their families, are covered by group health insurance plans, paid jointly by the employer and the employee or by the employee alone. Under the most common type of health plan, the individual pays monthly premium or fee. In return, the insurance company covers most major medical costs, except for a minimum amount, called the deductible, which the employee pays each year before insurance coverage begins. 

Although most families have some form of private health insurance, some citizens cannot afford such insurance. These people receive medical coverage through two major social programs. Medicaid is a joint federal-state program, which funds medical care for the poor people. The requirements for receiving Medicaid and the scope of the medical care available vary widely from state to state. Medicaid has greatly increased the use of health care services by the poor. Medicare is a federal program, which pays a substantial part of the medical bills of Americans who are over 65 years or disabled. Medicare is not a poverty program, but is rather a form of federally administered and supported health insurance. Medicare now pays according to the patient’s diagnosis. This provides an incentive for the hospitals to keep costs down.