Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

1. Sightseeing. Getting around town.

New York is the largest city in the United States and one of the largest in the world. It is situated in the natural harbour of the mouth of the Hudson River. Forty years later the English fleet entered the harbour, captured the city and renamed it New York. There five boroughs in New York: Brooklyn, the Bronx, Manhattan, Queens and Richmond. Only one of them, Bronx  is not on an island. All districts of New York are linked together by numerous bridges. Manhattan, the smallest island in New York, is the real center of the city. When people say “New York City” they usually mean Manhattan. The “big Apple”, as New York city is nicknamed, has an energy that few other cities can equal. John Kennedy Airport is one of the busiest in the world. More ships come into New York’s harbour  than into any other port in the world. New York is the national leader in business, finance, manufacturing, fashion and the arts.  New York city has extensive transport network: the subway, buses( city buses, express buses and some other), ferries, suburban trains, taxis. NY subway is the speediest means of transportation. train of different routs may go past one and the same station. The route of every train given in numbers or letters, its didtination and its type(express or local) are indicated on all the cars. Unlike local, express trains stop only at the main station. So befor getting on the train, chack the sign on the car to make sure that this is the route you want. Youe can get a free subway map at any token booth. The fare on NY subway in the same no matter how far you travel. To gain access to the train tokens are required. Buy them at boths in the subway station and insert them in a slot at the turnstiles. NY city buses run frequently stopping about every two blocks. At every stop there are route maps and bus schedules. It's advisable to pay attention to the sing on the side of the bus. Experss buses have the letter X befor the route number. The fare there is higher. Be sure to have exact change for the fare or a busway token, as bills are not accepted. Ask for atransfer ticken, if you need one, when you board the bus. Most bus routs operate 24 hours a day, but some don't run late at night or on Sunday. Free bus maps are also available at main bus station. There are several ferries operating in greater NY. It passes by the famous Atatue of Liberty. The ferry fare is much laver than on any other means of transportation.

11. Climete and weather.

The British Isles which are surrounded by the ocean have an insular climat. The climate is moister and more equable than that of General Europe. The three things that chiefly determine the climate of England are: 1) the position of the island in the temperate best;2) the fact that the prevalling winds blow from the west and south-west;3) the warm curren the gulf stream that flows from the gulf of Mexicoalong the western shores of England. In common, the climat is mild, and strong frost are rare. Due to the moderating influences of thesea and the gulf stream, the sumaty t is higher and the suly t lower than inany other country in the same latitudes, thta is why the British ports are ice-free and its rivers not frosen throughout th4e year. It’s hard to say that England has typical weather because of the sudden changes that occur-shavers from what was only a few hours before a clear blue sky: sun-shine that makes you want to leave off most of your clother followed by winds that set you wishing for two overcoats. There is an abundance of rainfall in the west. As a result, there are thck fogs which last for days and weeks at a time during the autumn and witer. When winter comes,people are obliged to spend more time indoors because out of door it’s cold. Ponds,lakes, rivers and streams sometimes may be frozen, and the roads may be sometimes covered with slippery ice or deep snow. The trees are bare. Bitter north winds have stripped them of all their leaves. The lack of sunshine hinders the cultivation of mny spicies of plants, especially grain crops. Howere, grasses grow all the year round, providing fodder for cattle.

. Travelling.

The scientific and technological progress of the 21-th century has allowed people to overcome time and distance, to cover in the twinkle of an eye the vast expans of our planet.  The whole world is open now. And now modern life is impossible without travelling. To understand how true this is, you only have to go to a railway station, a port or a airport, where you can see hundreds people hurrying to catch a train, a ship, or a plane.

Of course the fastest way of travelling is by plane. The airliners of the world offer many varieties of services in many different kinds of aircrafts. Transcontinental and transoceanic flights are made in giant jet planes, some of which can carry several hundred passengers on each flight. Smaller jets are commonly used on the shorter routs. Airline passenger service can be divided into scheduled and non-scheduled flights. A scheduled flight leaves at the same time on the same day to the same destination. The schedule for the flight is published by the airline in its timetable. The passenger can make a reservation in advance for a scheduled flight with the reasonable expectation that the flight will leave at a certain time and go to a certain place regardless of the number of passengers who have tickets for the flight. A non-scheduled flight on the other hand, depends on the availability of passengers and aircraft. On the flight itself, there is usually a distinction between first class and economy, which are formerly known as tourist class. Today the airlines carry millions of passenger every year. In some areas of the world air service is the only effective means of public transportation.

Some people who are not sea-sick prefer to travel by ship when possible. There are large lines, holiday ships and river boats on board which you can book a cabin and visit different countries or ports of your own country. Ships are not so fast as planes, but a sea voyage is a very pleasant way of spending holiday. In the evening you can seat in arm chairs on the promenade deck and breath the sea air. In the day time you can sunbathe on the sundeck.

Travelling by train is slower than by plain of cause, but it also has his advantages. You can see the country you are travelling through. Modern train have very comfortable seats (the upper and lower berths) in all passenger carriages and there are sleeping-cars and dining-cars which make even the logest journey enjoyable.

12. Clothes and person’s appearance.

When we speak of somebody's appearance, we mean his (her) figure, hands, feet, hair, face. In describing the figure we often mention the build. A man or a woman may be: heavily built, delicately built, well-made. The figure may be: slender or stooping; thin or stout (fat, plump). Plump is mostly used when speaking about a very young person or about a woman. A person may be: tall, short or middle-sized. When speaking of the appearance one should not forget the bearing which may be erect or stooping. The hand, which is at the very end of the arm have five fingers on each hand. This is what we call them: the forefinger (index finger), the middle finger, the ring finger, the little finger and the thumb. The leg - the part of the body from the hip to the ankle. At the  end of the legs we have five toes on each foot. The manner of walking is called the walk (gait). The upper and the lower limbs are attached to the trunk. The head and the neck are poised on the shoulders. The head is covered with hair, which may be: short, long, thin, thick, straight, curly, wavy. According to the fashion women's hair may be: bobbed, shingled, plaited, waved, put up (done in a knot). Women have their hair done in various (hair) styles at the hairdresser's. Men go there to have a shave and have their hair cut and have their beards and moustaches trimmed. Some men lose their hair and go bald. The face may be: square, oval, round, long.The complexion, that is, the color of the skin may be: dark, fair, olive, ruddy. The upper part of the face is the forehead.  The eyes are protected by the eyelids and eyebrows. When we are tired or sleepy, they feel heavy and droop. The eyelids are fringed with eyelashes.The eyes may be different colors and they may be: close-set, wide-set, deep-set, sunken or bulging. The cheeks may be: rosy, pink, red. Old or sick people may have hollow cheeks. Children's cheeks are often chubby. The cheekbones may be: high, prominent, and wide-apart. The nose may be: straight, flat, hooked, and aquiline; a person may be snub-nosed. The parts of the mouth are: the lips — upper and lower, and the teeth.  All the upper and lower teeth together are called a set of teeth.The chin may be: round or protruding, small or large. Stout people often have a double chin. When a woman's face and figure delight us, we say: she's beautiful (handsome, good-looking). We call her a real beauty and about her beauty. The words handsome, good-looking (but not beautiful) are also used of a man. The words attractive and pretty help us to describe a person pleasant to look at. If there is nothing particular in one's appearance, we call it common. To characterize somebody's appearance in a negative way we use the words: plain (Am. homely) or ugly. We say that a person looks his age when he looks neither older nor younger than he is in reality, but if he looks younger or older we say, he looks young (old) for his age. When a person looks younger than he is, we say that he is well preserved. There are a lot of clothes: from the cheap clothes made of artificial materials, up to smart, expensive clothes which not everyone can afford to buy. There are many fashion styles: romantic style, casual style, sport style, classic style, business style, teenage style, exotic style, beach style, city fashion, village fashion, etc. Some people choose their clothes so they can follow the fashion in the music world; the work of others affects the way they dress a great deal. They have. to look good because they deal with business people. The youngsters, who frequently go to night clubs, prefer to wear as little as possible to keep cool. And in the USA some people wear second-hand clothes from jumble sales, partly because they can't afford anything else, but also because it is still quite fashionable. A lot of Americans wear those clothes which they consider to be comfortable, and don't really care what other people think about their clothes.

As for me, it is not very important which style to follow; the main thing is to look tidy, neat and clean.

3. Traveling and tourism. Hotel: amenities and facilities.

Travel & tourism today has become a larger giant in terms of employment, investment, output & value. The great tourism phenomenon as we witness today is a result of great waves of technology which have changed the social geography of the world since the late 19^th century. Today millions of people seem to enjoy the prospect of moving from one continent to another in a matter of hours. Traditionally considered a luxury, travel and tourism are now held to be normal, virtually indispensable part of lifestyle and consumption pattern of all but the lowest income groups of the population. The present day traveler comes from a wider social background and his tastes and desires are much more varied. A large number of people are now going abroad to participate in more exiting and exotic activities like mountaineering, water siding, trekking, underwater swimming and the like. There are a lot of good hotels in big cities. If you don't want to get disappointed, it is advisable to book accommodation beforehand by phone or Internet. Plenty of hotels advertise at airports. If you arrive by train or car, the best thing to do is look in the Yellow pages under Hotel, Motel or Lodging. Accommodation as well as rates vary from hotel to hotel. There are deluxe hotels, the most luxurious are more expensive. There are resort hotels used for entertainment or recreation. There are also a lot of motels which grew up with the development of highways in America. There are hotel chains, consisting of several hotels controlled by one company. In the lobby of a hotel there is a registration desk where guests check in and out, pick up & deposit keys. The guest is given a registration card to fill out: the name and address, the passport number for foreign nationals. The desk clerk enters the guest's room number, the room rate and the arrival and departure dates into the computer. When all formalities are over, the bellman shows the guests to their rooms and assists them with their baggage. Rooms in most of hotels are with all modem conveniences. You can take a single room, a double room or a suite, charges varying accordingly. If you want to have your suit pressed or dry-cleaned, your shirt ironed, or your laundry done, you should ring for the maid. In the lobby of hotel there are a lot of offices: a booking -office, post and telegraph offices, an information desk. At the information desk you can enquire about the departures and arrivals of flights, about phone numbers of private individuals. In the same building there are also restaurants, bars, cafeterias, beauty parlours, gyms and swimming-pools. When leaving the hotel, it is customary to tip the attendants. The tip is always given with a word of thanks

13. Sports & Fitness

The fitness boom of the past decades led to a big rise in the numbers of people participating in sports and activities. Those who pursue the latest fitness fashion are convinced that staying in good physical shape requires much more than regular exercise and balanced meals. For anyone who really wants to be healthy, fitness has become an integral part of their lives. A lot of health and fitness club, and public leisure centers indicate the popularity of sports during the past thirty years. There are many opportunities for keeping fit. First of all it's necessary to do exercises-Running, jumping, swimming, bending and stretching are among the most popular exercises. Many people prefer jogging, which is the cheapest and the most accessible sport. Popular running competitions are now held everywhere. A healthy body becomes a fashion, an ideal of the modem life. The most popular outdoor winter sports are shooting, hunting, hockey and in the countries where the weather is frosty and there is much snow-skating, skiing and tobogganing. Some people greatly enjoy figure-skating and ski-jumping. Summer affords excellent opportunities for swimming, boating, yachting, cycling, gliding and many other sport. Badminton is also very popular. A lot of girls and women go in for calisthenics. Among indoor games the most popular are billiards, table tennis, draughts and some others. The best way to avoid depression caused by the city life is doing exercises. Taking exercise is only one part of keeping fit. It's important to get slim. Some people eat nothing but fruit for several days. But it won't be of any use without proper exercises. Besides to avoid serious disease one should give up smoking. Smoking should be banned in all public places.

The English are great lovers of competitive sports. At the top of the list is Association Football. Rugby football is also very popular. Although the British are so fond of watching horses and dog racing, they are not particularly interested in being spectators at occasions when human beings compete. The more social games of golf and tennis are played by great numbers of people. As for me, I'm interested in different kinds of sport. I do aerobics 3 times a week. In summer I like to swim & also do some cycling. I also like to watch Olympic games on TV. They took place every 4 years for nearly 1200 years in Olympia. The Olympic symbol is 5 interlocking circles representing 5 continents on a white background. The blue ring is for Europe, the yellow one is for Asia , the black one is for Africa, the green one is for Australia, and the red one is for America.People all over the world are very fond of sports and games. That is one thing in which people of every nationality and class are united.

4. At a restaurant. Meals. Table manners.

The usual meals in England are breakfast, lunch, tea, and dinner. Breakfast is generally a bigger meal than they have on the Continent, though some English people like a continental breakfast of rolls and butter and coffee. But the usual English breakfast is porridge or corn flakes with milk or cream and sugar, bacon, eggs and tea or coffee. For a change you can have a boiled egg, cold ham, or perhaps fish. They generally have lunch about one o´clock. At lunch time in a London cafe or restaurant one usually finds a mutton chop, or steak and chips, or cold meat, or perhaps fish with potatoes, salad and pickles, then a pudding or fruit to follow. Afternoon tea you can hardly call a meal, but for the leisured classes it´s a sociable sort of thing when people often come in for a chat with their cup of tea. But some people like to have the so-called “high tea” which is quite a substantial meal. They have it between 5 and 6 o´clock. It consists of ham or tongue and tomatoes and salad with strong tea, bread and butter, pineapple with cream or cake. In some houses dinner is the biggest meal of the day. Dinner time is around 7 o´clock in the evening. But in a great many English homes the midday meal is the chief one of the day while in the evening they have a much simple supper – an omelette, or sausage, sometimes bacon and eggs. When we speak about table manners we usually mean a list of do´s and don´t. Never stretch over the table for something you want, ask your neighbour to pass it. Take a slice of bread from the bread plate by hand, don´t harpoon your bread with a fork. Don´t bite it into the whole slice, break it off piece by piece. Never spoil your neighbour´s appetite by criticizing what he just happens to be eating. When a dish is placed before you don´t eye it suspiciously as though it were the first time you had seen it, and don´t give the impression that you are about to sniff it. No matter how surprised you are take it all in your stride. The customary way to refuse a dish is by saying “No, thank you”. Don´t say “I don´t eat this stuff”, don´t make faces or noises to show that you don´t like it. In between courses don´t make bread-balls to while the time away and don´t play with the silver. Don´t lick your spoon. Sit facing the table, don´t sit sideways. Don´t use a spoon for what can be eaten with a fork. Cut your meat into small pieces and cut one piece at a time. Don´t put your elbows on the table. Don´t talk with your mouth full. And finally don´t forget to say “thank you”. And some words about restaurant. It's often necessary to make a reservation. Otherwise the restaurant you chose may be filled up. By the way don't expect to share a table with other parties. If you want to ask for a bill, which is usually called the check, signal thw waiter with a raised hand. As the charge for service isn't included in restaurant check, everyone from waiters to porters anticipate tips. The amount the client give should take into account the quality of service he receive. Now, many restaurant pass menues in the window so you can see the prices befor you enter . If they don't, it's acceptable to enter the restaurant and ask for a menu7 befor you sit dawn. If it's too expensisve to you, it's OK to leave. If you don't eat all your foog, you may ask for a "doggie bag". The waiter will put your uneaten food and you can take it home. You shouldn't do it at an expensive first class retaurant, of cause.

14. Education.

Education is very important for every person. It gives information and opportunities for further life. Every country has its own, unique system of education. We can note example of many different system, but i think the most developed and popular are: education system in the USA, the education system in Great Britain, as the oldest. Education in Great Britain. The education system of GB is extremely complex and bewildering. The department of education and science  is responsible for national education policy, but it doesn’t employee teacher or prescribe curricular or text books. Each school has its own board of governors consisting of teachers, parents, and local politicians. There are three main system in Britain: the Comprehensive system, the selective and the private system. The state school system is usually divided into 2 stages (secondary and primary). The majority of primary schools are subdivided into infant school (ages 5 to 7), and the junior schools (ages 7 to 11). There are some types of schools in GB. Grammar schools provided an academicals cause for selected pupils from the age of 11 to 18. They give pupils a high level of academic education which can lead to the university. Technical schools offer a general education with a technical bias and serve those pupils who are more mechanically minded. The curricular includes more science and mathematics. Secondary modern school were formed to provided a non-academic education for children of less attainment. The curricular includes more practical subjects. The comprehensive school brings about a general improvement in the system of secondary education. At the age of 13 children take an exam. If they are successful they go on to public schools where they usually remain until the age 18. The public exams taken by British schoolchildren are called GCSEs (The General Certificate of Secondary Education). Any student who wants to go to the university needs to pass two or three A level exams. There are 46 Universities in GB. But not all Universities are equal. They differ from one to another in history, tradition, academic organization. A university usually consists of colleges. The departments of the colleges are organized into faculties. The academic year is split into three terms. Formal teaching takes place in the first two terms which last for twenty four weeks in total. The third term is reserved for classes and exams and last for six weeks. The universities teach all major subject areas. After three years of study a University graduate will leave with the Degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science. He can continue to take his Master’s Degree and then the Doctor’s Degree. Education in the US. Americans place a high value on education. There is no uniform school organization. But certain common features exist. Most school in the US start at the kinder garden level. Preschool education is part of the elementary school. After graduating from secondary school a growing numbers of Americans go on to higher education. American institution of higher education include: technical training school, community colleges, colleges offering four-year bachelor degree programmers; and university which contain one or more colleges and graduate school offering master’s or doctoral degree programmers. There is no National University in the US. Each state controls and support one University. The students don’t go to University free of charge. Everyone must pay a tuition fee. During the first year they follow a basic programmer. After the first 2 years every students majors in one subject and minors in another. After completing four years of study they receive a Bachelor Degree. An additional year of study they may receive a Mister’s Degree and after two or three years of graduate work and writing of the dissertation they receive a Doctoral degree. Over four years at the end of each year students have a final write exam.

5. The customs house. Passport control

The moment a traveller crosses the border his luggage is taken to the customs-house by porters. Every country has its own customs regulations, which stipulate what articles are liable to duty and what are duty-free. Sometimes an article which falls under customs restrictions and is liable to duty is allowed in duty-free if the traveller doesn´t exceed a certain fixed quota. These are listed in a duty free quota list. Customs restrictions also include a prohibited articles list. This is a list of items which may not be brought into a country or taken out of it. An official paper giving permission to take items, which fall under special customs restrictions, in or out of a country is known as an import or export licence. If the traveller has any item which comes under customs restrictions he is asked to declare it. That is, he is asked to name the item, stating its value and other particulars. The declaration is made in writing on a special form. As a rule personal items are duty-free. It sometimes happens that a passenger´s luggage is carefully gone through in order to prevent smuggling. The formalities at the customs-house usually take some time. Only after passing through the customs does one realize that his journey is drawing to an end (or beginning). The next formality is filling in the immigration form and going through passport control.

15.Art and Museums

London is one of the biggest world centres of culture and art. There are quite a number of different museums and art galleries there. The British Museum is one of the greatest and best known museums in the world, which was founded in 1753. There are eleven major departments in the museum, that contain many different antiquities.  There is also a notable collection of items from all the countries of Europe. The British Museum is also known for its library which is the greatest and most famous in Britain. Among other museums of London that attract visitors are the Natural History Museum, The Museum of British Transport, the Museum of London (opened in 1979) and Madame Tussaud's Museum of Waxworks.

The Natural History Museum is the home of the national collections of animals and plants, and of the minerals and rocks from which the earth is built up. It has a twofold function: to increase man's knowledge of the animal, plant and mineral kingdoms as an institution for scientific research, and, to read knowledge of natural history as widely as possible.

The best known art galleries of London are the National Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery and the Tate.

The National Gallery which is in Trafalgar Square, contains Britain's famous collection of pictures. It is also rich in paintings by such Italian masters as Raphael and Veronese, and contains pictures representing all European schools of art. Everyone can find some kind of picture to enjoy.

The idea of a national gallery lingered on and by the beginning of the nineteenth century was being seriously discussed. At last talk resulted in the foundation of the National Gallery. Sir George Beaumont, a collector and painter himself, was one of the most eager to see a national collection. He offered to bequeath the pictures from own collection, and by 1825 this offer was being publicly mentioned. That year the death of a rich merchant collector, John Angerstein, was the event which precipitated the talk on all sides into action. His death was followed by the news that his pictures were for sale, and offers from abroad had already been received. Representations were made to the Prime Minister. Lawrence wrote to Angerstein's son, begging him not to sell abroad. After some debate about price, the thirty- eight Angerstein pictures were obtained for the considerable sum. In Aprel, 1824, Parliament voted the money. On the 10^th of May the Gallery was opened to the public.

The National Portrait Gallery stands just behind the National Gallery. It contains portraits of British monarchs and authentic portraits of men and women who have contributed to its making.

The idea of the Tate Gallery took shape in 1890. In that year Henry Tate's gift of 65 paintings and 2 sculptures, almost all of them the work of Victorian contemporaries, was offered to the nation, but a gallery had still to be built to house them. When opened seven years later the Tate Gallery consisted of 8 rooms and was intended as a collection of contemporary British painting only. In the intervening years the scope of the collection has been transformed as well as enlarged. Instead of being a collection of nineteenth ~ century British painting it has become the national collection of British painting of all periods, in addition to this the national collection of modem foreign painting and of modem sculpture, both British and foreign. In scale the collection has grown beyond recognition. Instead of 70 works the collection has contains nearly four thousand British paintings and drawings, over three hundred modern foreign paintings, and over three hundred and sixty pieces of modem sculpture. The growth of the building has also been impressive: the eight original galleries built by Tate have now become 34, including the more than 300 foot long Sculpture Gallery, and The Tate is now the largest picture gallery in the British Commonwealth.

Although it is the finest and most representative collection there is of the British school, it has serious gaps. It contains, for instance, no first-class example of the work of  Stubbs. On the other hand there are certain masters which the Tate represents supremely well. The chief of these is Turner. By the greatest of all British painters the Gallery possesses more than 300 paintings and sketches. William Blake and G.F. Watts are particularly well represented.

Here are some other interesting museums and galleries of London: the Victoria and Albert Museum, which covers most, if not all, of the artistic activities of man, such as architecture and sculpture, ceramics, engraving, illustrations and design, metal work, painting, textiles and wood work. The Wallace Collection, a magnificent collection of pictures, furniture, armour and objects of art. The Science Museum, which exhibits machinery, scientific instruments and apparatus for scientific research and for educational purposes.

One of the places of interest most visitors to St. Petersburg want to see is the Hermitage State Museum. It's one of the most outstanding museums of the world culture and art. The Hermitage was founded in 1764. Originally the first paintings were housed in the Winter Palace. Later the other buildings: the Small Hermitage, the Old Hermitage and the New Hermitage were built. The Museum now occupies five buildings. The Hermitage contains art collections of all ages. There is the richest collection in the world of Oriental art and culture. There are wonderful collections from China, India, ancient Greece and Rome. West-European paintings are widely represented in the Hermitage too. The total number of paintings of the West-European masters is 7.5 thousand. They include world-famous works by Leonardo da Vincy, Raphael, Rembrand, Rubens and others. Special department of the museum are devoted to the history of culture and art of Russia. The Hermitage is also famous for its outstanding collections of applied art: tapestries, furniture, metal work, silver and jewelry.

6. Post-office. Telecommunications

The General Post Office and local post offices have many duties. They not only deliver letters, telegrams, newspapers, but among other things, they pay out old-age pensions, subscribe for periodicals and take and deliver parcels. Inside the post office is a long counter divided into departments for parcels, stamps, registered and air-mail letters, telegrams, money-orders. There is a post-box in all post offices. If you want to send a telegram you’ll just ask for a telegram form at the post office counter and fill it in. You can send your telegram, letter or a document by fax. They will be reproduced and sent to and received by the addressee instantly. Perhaps you want to buy a stamp or a stamped envelope to send a letter, then go to the counter where they sell postcards, envelopes, blocks of stamps of different denomination or get them from a slot machine. When we have written a letter we sign it, fold it up and put it in an envelope. Don’t forget to write the mailing code. If your letter contains anything valuable, it is a good idea to register it. When you register a letter the clerk gives you a receipt and you pay the registration fee. If you go to the post office to send off a parcel you will have the parcel weighed at the parcels-counter. You may also have your parcel insured if you want to declare its value. If you want to send money by post you should fill in a money-order form stating the name of the payee, his address, as well as sender’s address, and the sum of money you are sending. The clerk takes your money together with the money-order and gives you a receipt. At the municipal service counter we pay the rent, electricity and gas bills, and the telephone rental. Suppose the postman arrived during breakfast and insisted that you leave the table and read your mail immediately. This is what most people allow the telephone to do. It has become a horrid instrument, always clamoring for attention with its whiny bell. Most people give it what it wants just to shut it up. On the other hand, people complain that they are often treated rudely by persons whom they telephone. Here are some  of the most common telephone problems and the methods to handle them. Some people can ask you what the proper number of rings is a caller should wait before hanging up. The answers may be six rings or perhaps eight and if you still suspect the person of lurking there, hang up and dial again. This gives you two chances to get the number right - and the person time to get out of the bath. Another problem may conclude in people’s social errors. For example, your friend call you at home and eat something during the entire conversation. In this way you should ask her by using perhaps oblique line of accusation to call back. If you made a telephone call in someone else’s house the question would be able to appear if you would pay for it. For local calls you can just ask if you can use the telephone without paying for the service. For long distance calls, ask the operator to charge it to your home number. Also you must remember that you should be polite when you speak on the telephone and you will have no problems with people.

16. Medicine. Health service. Drug problems.

The Akts setting ut the National Health Service in Britain came into force in 1948. The obeject of the NHS Act  was the establishment of a comprehensive health servise disigned to secure improvment in the phisical and mental health of the people and the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illness. The introduction of the new health service didn’t mean a complite break with the past. All that was good of the existing service was absorded into a new scheme. The NHS made it possible that the benefit once available only to insured person ot those who could afford to pay for them, or as a form of charity, became available to everyone. Originally it was free. The service provided by the NHS fall into 3 main groups: !. the geberal practitioners service;2. the hospital a’specialists service; 3. the local health and welfare authority service. The cost of health and welfare service in Britain is met general taxation, local rates and from charges paid by the patients. There are charges from prescriptions, for dental treatment, for some other service. The cost of prescriptions has risen so sharply of late that people who need them most often can’t afoord to by medicines. The public is free to use the service. Unlike the UK, where people don’t have to pay for medical treatment, the USA doesn’t have a NHS. Most people have health insurance to pay for their medical care, which is either paid for by themselves or by their employer. People can get insurence frrom regular insurence company, or they can pay to become members of a HMO (Health Maintenance Org.). The government does help to pay for some medical care for prople who are on low incomes through the MediCaid system, and for old people through the MediCare sustem. But some people can’t afford insurance but are not poor enough to get government help, such individuals can go to public hospitals, where they always receive treatment an emergency. On the US a phisian is among the bestpaid professions and physicians and hospitals also must buy malpractice insurance to protect themselves in case they be sued for neghgence by pationts.

7.Shopping.

I know a woman who likes to do grocery shopping but I also know a whole lot of people who hate it. People who hate shopping are likely to like supermarkets, those huge stores where almost everything you need is available in one location. The supermarket saves me both money and time. When I enter a supermarket I take a big, wheeled basket and roll it around from aisle to aisle. Fresh and frozen foods, canned goods, boxes, bags and bottles soon fill up my cart. I also buy many non-food items such as paper napkins, plastic wraps, laundry detergent, light bulbs. Some foods that have already prepared are also available in the supermarket. There is one big danger in supermarket shopping: there are thousands of items within hand’s reach on the shelves, all attractively packaged. The temptation to buy things you don’t really need or want is very strong. Don’t be fooled by the pictures on the boxes, read labels. When I’ve loaded up my basket and checked my shopping list again to make sure I have everything I need, I go to a check-out counter. Here a cashier will look at the price marked on every item I buy, ring it up on the cash register, add sales tax and then total up the bill. The register will show me the amount I must pay and I hand my money to the cashier. While the groceries are being bagged, I count my change and then head home.At the department store. If we want to buy things, we can go either to specialized shops or large department stores. For example, we can buy cloth at a draper’s and ready-made clothes at a dress-shop, a man’s outfitter’s or a department store. The hatter’s sells men’s hat, but the milliner’s sells hays for ladies. The hosier’s sells hosiery or knitted goods like stockings, socks and underclothes. Those who need paper, pens, notebooks can get them at the stationer’s. The bookseller’s sells books and magazines. If they don’t happen to have the particular book you want in stock, they will order it for you. All you have to do is to leave a postcard with your request and your address. The watchmaker’s sells clocks. The china-shop has a large stock of china, porcelain and earthenware. A chemist’s sells many things besides medicines – perfume, toilet articles such as soap, toothpaste. Nowadays we can buy a lot of things either for cash or on hire-purchase, that is the customer pays the deposit on the goods and pays off the balance in instalments. Payment may be spread over a period of up to two years. This hire-purchase system helps people to buy such expensive things as refrigerator, TV sets, washing machines and many other things

17.PREJUDICES. TOTALITARIAN RELIGIOUS CULTS.

There are a lot of prejudices, such as: sexual, racial or religious prejudices.

Probably, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was the brightest representative of struggle against racial prejudices. The 1950s and 60s were years of great struggle for black Americans against segregation. Thanks to Dr. King and the civil rights movement, black Americans and other minorities have won many rights.

As for a sexual prejudice, it is a big problem too. Man's chauvinism is frequently shown on roads. A lot of men behave roughly if they see woman driving the car.

And as for religious prejudices, there are many religions in the world, and every representative of his religion thinks that exactly his religion is true.

There are also many different conflicts between religion's representatives in the world, for example discrimination between Catholics and Protestants.

If you are Protestant you live in a Protestant area and you go to a Protestant school, and if you are Catholic you live in a Catholic area and you go to a Catholic school. There is such prejudice because children are just brought up in that way, they have no contact with each other. When you first meet people, they have to establish very quickly whether you are Catholic or Protestant and there are quite a lot of ways of doing it without directly asking. There are so many little clues, names and surnames. If you've got an Irish surname the chances are that you are Catholic, if you've got a Scottish name than you are probably Protestant. Protestants associate Catholics with some sort of malevolent, despicable characteristic: their eyes are too close together, they don't work hard enough, and they are untrustworthy. There are a lot of cases when parents even don't attend the wedding of their child who marries person of other religion. But it's not only a religious matter; it's political, economical, historical and colonial matters. Protestants are in the majority in Northern Ireland, they are the ruling class. There is a lot of unemployment in Northern Ireland, but most of the good jobs belong to Protestant.

Nowadays there are also such extremist religious cults, as the Moonies or the Unification Church. The Sun Myung Moon is the founder of this cult.

There is a well-detailed system of recruiting of new adepts in the Unification Church. They seldom collect the staff among streetwise people, preferring them to respectable, diffident youngsters. The Moonies subject recruits to consecutive training. They don't leave youngsters even for a moment; they induce them to work, listen to lectures, pray and sing the hymns every day. There are certain rules for the adepts, such as: low-calorie meals, constant lack of the sleep, a collective chanting;

strictness in appearance and behavior; the Moonies also discourage newcomers from talking to other newcomer. They convert recruits into cultists by programming every minute of their waking hours until they are brought under complete mind control and fall into a trance.

Technique of deprogrammer needs a lot of time and efforts, and it is important to keep a good relationship with programmed person and not antagonize him about his Unification Church affiliation. You should induce this person to think for himself again.

YOUR OPINION

8. Entertainment. Going out theatre, cinema, disco.

Tgear number of varios films are released in the US every year. Hollywood released films differ in genre. There are newsteel, cartoon, documentary and a full-length film.Hollywood;s early films aere westerns (with their fast action, uncomplicated herous, and clear-cut conflict between good and evil), horror films (with their mysters ous and supernatural happenings, ghosts and monsters), comedies (very often not in good taste and even vulgar), romance films (which shaved life as it could be lived in ours imagination and made the viewer escape from reality into a dream world), and musicals. There are films based on novels and films which deal with historical events. Hol. Was justly accused of creating a dream world, but american films of today are realistic and up-to-date. Many of the films raise urgent problems facing contemporary society of criminal behaviour and suggests that bad characters areoften the result of the circumstances and the environment. And so dangster films are often inspired by the gloomy front page stories. Most american films are made the great professional skill. Camera work, setting and acting are usually excellent. But there are also cheap second-rate films, which critics call stupid, badly written and badly directed. But the theatre in America is especially healthy in the hundreds of regional and university groups around the country. But it’s Broadway with its some 40 major professional stages and the numerous off – Broudway experimental theatres that bring to mind American playwrights such as O’Niell. There are over 15000 professional actors in NY alone. Theater in the US is seldom state-supported. American feel that each person would  be willing to support and help pay for his or her own favourite cultural activity, whatever it may be. The Matropolitan Opera Association is a good example of its annual budget only 5% comes from governmental sources, whther city, state or federal. The other 95% is made up by individual contributions, ticket sales, and so on. NY is the major, but not only cultural centre in the US.

18. At a meeting.

Meetings are necessary. No organization of any size can proceed for long with each member acting independently. Meetings are held to discuss business, to explore ideas and to convey information.

Meetings are usually seen as a waste of time but they are in fact one of the manager's most useful means of communication, whether with subordinates or colleagues - provided they are conducted effectively.

We should begin the meeting by stating its purpose. We should try to keep the discussion relevant. We should watch out for speakers going off on tangents and for people talking at cross-purposes. Begin the meeting on time. Don't wait for the newcomers. When they arrive briefly tell them what conclusions have been reached. This will bring them up to date and may encourage them to be more punctual in future.

As the meeting progresses, we must make sure that everyone understands what is being talked about. After each item we should summarize the conclusions that have been reached. We should encourage the silent and control the over-talkative. Respond positively to suggestions. These are easier to dismiss than facts or opinions but they are essential if new ideas are to be generated. Those who dismiss them should be invited to put forward new suggestions.

The chairperson must avoid answering questions. It's better to pass them on to others. If disagreement becomes heated and it becomes a clash of personalities rather than ideas then we refuse it or draw a neutral participant into the discussion. We also should finish the meeting on time.

An agenda informs people attending a meeting of the meeting's purpose and the business to be covered. An agenda is designed to make sure the topics that need to be discussed are discussed and any extraneous business is left for another time. By following the agenda closely, the chairperson of a meeting can ensure that the meeting is purposeful and productive. Any agenda must include the date of the meeting. The agenda for sales conference or stockholder's meeting may be broken down into days and hours and include sites for individual sessions.

The minutes of the meeting are a written record of the business discussed and transacted at the meeting. Some companies tape record their meetings, and the tapes are subscribed and summarized. The person who records all events and decisions (secretary) must follow next rules:

1) to read the agenda before the meeting and keep it as a guide

2) to know the names of all people who might speak

3) to use outline form of number of headings, mark up notes with arrows and underlines

4) to record major decisions or resolutions made by the attendees. Formal resolutions must be recorded word for word

Soon after the meeting adjourns, secretary transcribes notes into a first draft. We organize the draft by topic or time sequence, whichever seems more logical. A final draft must be given to a chairperson or supervisor for signing. We keep a copy of the minutes on file, clipped to the agenda and handouts for the meeting.

e.g. company may gather to discuss a number of issues concerning the well being and the health or safety of employees. Here is an example of such meeting. There were representatives of the various departments in the company at that meeting. Chairman declared the meeting open, proposed an agenda and asked for additions or amendments. The attendees adopted the agenda as it stood. One of the clerks offered to fix the time limit for the report at 10 minutes and allowed each speaker 5 minutes for discussion in debate. The majority seconded this motion. The first reporter took the floor. After she had finished, some of those present had a number of questions to ask. Another reporter proposed that the meeting adopt a resolution which outlined a number of measures to improve the situation with the canteen as there were some complaints. The resolution met with stiff opposition and many amendments were proposed. Then the chairman proposed that the committee work out a resolution later and adjourned the meeting due to the official opening of the new factory extension. But the Committee met later and drew up a new resolution that incorporated all the questions discussed and all the motions made.

At the meetings attendees may vote, take the floor, second smb's motion or reject motions, to nominate or to take a ballot.

9. Crime and law enforcement

When someone is arrested for committing an offence, he is taken to the police station for interrogation. If the police decide there is a case against him, he is charged with the offence, that is to say the police formally accuse him of committing it. After this, the accused appears before a magistrate who is empowered to decide what to do about minor cases. If the magistrate finds the accused guilty, he will sentence him to pay a fine, or some other minor punishment.

More serious cases are passed up to the Crown Court, where the accused is tried for the offence by a judge, and usually a jury. Very serious cases are heard in the high courts in London. The accused mayhave to wait a long time to stand trial. At the trial, the accused pleads guilty or not guilty. If he pleads not guilty, the jury, composed of 12 ordinary citizens, has to decide if he is guilty or not. This decision is called their verdict. The lawyers who try to persuade the jury are called barristers. In court, the one on the side of the accused is known as the Counsel for the Defense and the one against him is called the Counsel for the Prosecution. Each barrister calls witnesses to give evidence in support of his case. The witnesses can be cross-examined by the other counsel, who tries to persuade the jury that the evidence is untrue or not important. When all the evidence has been heard, the judge sums up the case and explain legal points for the jury´s benefit. The jury retires to another room, where they try to reach a verdict. If they find the accused guilty as charged, we say hi has been convicted of the offence. The judge then passes sentence. He may sentence the guilty person to pay a fine, to a number of years imprisonment, or to some other punishment. If the verdict is not guilty, we say the accused has been acquitted of the offence, and he goes free. If the accused feels there was something unfair about the trial, he may appeal to the Appeal Courts, where three judge´s decide the case. So why do people commit crime or violence?

The first point that has to be clarified here is the meaning of the world violence. There are, after all, many types of violence in our cities, ranging from baby battering to the suppression of political demonstrations by police. What measures can be taken to combat this kind of violence? Well, to begin with, it is often argued that violent crime should be punished more severely. That is to say, more offenders sent to prison, longer prison sentences, and even the reintroduction of the death penalty. The first two ideas seem reasonable, but ignore the problem that our prisons are already full, and also that ex-prisoners are more likely to commit crime than other people. In addition, it is very expensive to keep people in prison. As for the death penalty, there is no hard evidence that it has any effect on the commission of the crimes. Punishing crime more severely, then, does not seem to work. A more effective measure would be to improve the service provided by the police. More people would say that British policemen should carry guns, but I do not agree, since this would lead to more guns being used by thieves, and consequently more violence, probably involving innocent by-standers. Also, we must remember that not every policeman is psychologically fit to carry a gun. Nevertheless, certain changes can be made. Firstly, the size of the police force could be increased, by improving salaries and conditions. Equally importantly, the police should receive better training, so that they can deal effectively with trouble without becoming unduly violent themselves. The government must ensure that jobs are provided for young people. Until young people have work, money and hope, it will be impossible to walk safely in the streets.

19. Generation gap.

Generation gap is a division between young people and their elders. Parents complain that children do not show them proper respect and obedience, while children complain that their parents do not understand them at all.Old people are always saying that me young are not what they were. The same comment is made from generation to generation and it is always true. Every new generation is different from the one that preceded it. This is as it should be. In our society, young people often travel great distances for their education, move out of the family home at an early age, marry - or live with - people whom their parents have never met, and choose occupations different from those of their parents.The young are better educated. They have a lot more money to spend and enjoy more freedom. They grow up more quickly and are not so dependent on their parents. They think more for themselves and do not blindly accept the ideals of their elders. The old always assume that they know best for the simple reason that they have been around a bit longer. They don't like to feel that their values are being questioned or threatened. And this is precisely what the young are doing. They are questioning me assumptions of their elders and disturbing their complacency. They take leave to doubt that the older generation had created the best of all possible worlds. Traditionally, the young have turned to their elders for guidance. Today, the situation might be reversed. The old - if they are prepared to admit it - could learn a thing or two from their children. One of the biggest lessons they could learn is that enjoyment is not "sinful". Enjoyment is a principle one could apply to all aspects of life.But all the young are grateful to the older generation, because it bequeathed peace and freedom which the young enjoy. The young have had everything easy. And one day young anyway will tell their parents thank you for bugging them about where they were going and with whom. Some day the young will thank parents for letting them stumble, fall and fail so that they could learn to stand alone. Parents love us enough to accept us for what we are, not for they wanted us to be.No doubt, the generation gap will continue to be a feature of our life, its causes are rooted in the freedoms and opportunities of our society, and in the rapid pace at which society changes.

10. Environmental problems.

The poisoning of the world's land, air, and water is the fastest-spreading disease of civilization. It's not easy to ignore the depressing pictures that are shown on TV. Every day natural disasters and accidents are shown to the public. Overpopulation, pollution and energy consumption have created such planet-wide problems as massive deforestation, ozone depletion, acid rains and the global warming that is believed to be caused by the greenhouse effect. More and more opinion polls are administered to find out how people feel about their future. The general public really see nuclear waste as the major problem. One of the problems with radioactive waste is that it's effect doesn't just last our generation, we'll pass on this legacy to our children We are still in a situation where the government is still fishing around for radioactive waste sites. Chernobyl shows there is another problem, the danger of meltdowns. We can observe a tremendous outcry over an increase in leukemia risks around nuclear installations. In Europe and the US deforestation was the inevitable consequence of economic progress. Harvesting beyond sustainable limits has brought some of the tropical forests best hardwoods near extinction. Destroying tropical forests can destabilize the world's climate. Air pollution is a very serious problem. Vehicles produce most of toxic micro-particles which do most harm. Toxic gazes appear in the atmosphere in critical concentration of carbon dioxide which is expected to increase at rates that could change the world's climate. The seas are in danger. They are filled with poison: industrial and nuclear waste, chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The Mediterranean is already nearly dead; the North Sea is following. The Aral Sea is on the brink of extinction. If nothing is done about it, one day nothing will be able to live in the seas. Every ten minutes one kind of animal, plant or insect dies out forever. If nothing is done about it, one million species that are alive today will become extinct twenty years from now. Today, fewer that 5000 black rhinos have escaped the onslaught. In many parts of Africa the survivors are being herded behind electrified fences for their own protection. Many people endorse the harsh penalties for poaching but it's difficult to collect money for anti-poaching operation. Industrial enterprises emit tons of harmful substances. These emissions have disastrous consequences for our planet. They are the main reason for the greenhouse effect and acid rains. To avoid green-house effect we should use renewable energy sources - wind power, wave and tide power. We really need to reduce our energy demand. We need to introduce a lot more conscious efforts to conserve energy, and we also need to introduce cleaner fossil fuel burning.  People are beginning to realize that environmental problems are not somebody else's. Many ecological problems can generally be solved only on the world community level. As nations we all share single ecological space. If we want to climb out of ecological pit we should do our best to protect our environment.

20. Mass media

The information revolution which made its humble start in the middle of the 15^th century. The first step in information exchange and mass communication was made through the print media. Newspapers & periodicals, as the major forms of the print media, not only publish information about current events, but also help people to develop their own thoughts and opinions.

Mass media play an important role in the life of society. They inform, educate and entertain people. They also influence the way people look at the world and make them change their views. Mass media mould public opinion. Millions of people in their spare time watch TV and read newspapers. On the radio one can hear music, plays, news and various discussions or commentaries of current events. Today television with its system of numerous channels has developed into a practically indispensable amenity of everyday life.

These days, 50% of homes have a VCR (video-cassette recorder) and millions more are being sold every year. Thanks to DBS (direst broadcast satellites), dozens of new channels are now available to anyone who buys a receiving "dish". Many of this new channels specialize in one kind of program - news, sport, cartoons, music and movies. The third development is cable - a system of hi-tech wires, which provides even more channels at a price. Fourthly, there is HDTV (high definition television), which now offers a much clearer and more realistic picture than was possible even a few years ago.

There is a lot of advertisement on mass media. Some of the TV and radio stations and newspapers are owned by different corporations. The owners can advertise whatever they choose. But it is hardly fair to say that mass media do not try to raise cultural level of the people or to develop their artistic taste. Mass media brings to millions of homes not only entertainment and news but also cultural and educational programs. There are state and private TV channels in Russia. There are also many local TV channels & radio stations.

Practically there is no family that does not read newspapers. Famous American said: "the careful reader of a few good newspapers can learn more in a year than most scientists do in their great libraries". There are a lot of different kinds of newspapers in our country. It is impossible to read all the newspapers and magazines but you can always find a paper which suits your interests. Favorite newspapers of Russian people are "Komsomolskaya Pravda", "Moskovsky Komsomolets", "Argumenty i Facty". In Primorye we read "Vladivostok". It gives a detailed and well-balanced analysis of current events and trends in economy.

The Internet has recently become another important source of information. Its main advantage is that news appears on the screen as soon as things happen in real life and you don't have to wait for news time on TV.

Today many people blame the media for the disturbing increase of violence. The media coverage is filled with depressing stories. Nobody is implying that the media should distort reality but they should include some positive stories to counterbalance the negative ones. Misinformation is one of the worst banes of the media, which can be effectively used by vested interests to serve their ends and to harm the society. All media are at once advantageous and dangerous. Nevertheless, the role of media in the society cannot be ignored. Judicious use of their potential can work wonders in the society.