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London
The capital city of England and the United Kingdom lies on the River Thames, which winds through the city. Its many bridges are a famous sight. The oldest is London Bridge, originally made of wood but rebuilt in stone in 1217. The most distinctive is Tower Bridge, which was designated to blend in with the nearby Tower of London.
15. Art and Museums
(Lab. Workbook ’Art and Museums’-e-mail)
Museums
Many people have a hobby that involves collecting things, e.g. stamps, postcards or antiques. In the 18th and 19th centuries wealthy people travelled and collected plants, animal skins, historical objects and works of art. They kept their collection at home until it got too big or until they died, and then it was given to a museum. The 80000 objects collected by Sir Hans Sloane, for example, formed the core collection of the British Museum which opened in 1759.
The parts of a museum open to the public are called galleries or rooms. Often, only a small proportion of a museum's collection is on display. Most of it is stored away or used for research. A person in charge of a department of a museum is called a keeper. Museum staff involved in the care and conservation of items are sometimes called curators.
Many museums are lively places and they attract a lot of visitors. As well as looking at exhibits, visitors can play with computer simulations and imagine themselves living at a different time in history or walking through a rainforest. At the Jorvik Centre in York, the city's Viking settlement is recreated, and people experience the sights, sounds and smells of the old town. Historical accuracy is important but so also is entertainment. Museums must compete for people's leisure time and money with other amusements. Most museums also welcome school groups and arrange special activities for children.
In Britain, the largest museums are the British Museum, the Science Museum, the Natural History Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. Museums outside London also cover every subject and period. Homes of famous people sometimes become museums, such as the house where Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon.
The first public museum in the US was the Charlestown Museum in South Carolina, founded in 1773. The largest is the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, a group of 14 museums. The most popular of these is the National Air and Space Museum. Some US museums are art museums. Many describe a period of history. In Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, for example, a museum explains the Civil War and gives details of the battle of Gettysburg. Halls of Fame are museums that honour people who have been outstanding in a certain field, e.g. baseball or rock music.
National museums receive money from the government but not enough to cover their costs, and visitors to museums usually have to pay to go in. Some people believe that this is wrong, because a museum's exhibits belong to the nation. Museum's usually have a shop selling books, postcards and gifts, and often a cafe. Their profits help to fund the museum. Some museums have the support of a commercial sponsor. In small museums only a few people have paid jobs, and the rest are volunteers, called docents in the US, who lead tours and answer visitors' questions.
National Gallery
Located in a building with a monumental neoclassical façade overlooking Trafalgar Square, the Gallery was founded in 1838. The collection had already been in existence for 14 years, when a group of valuable works belonging to the financier John Julius Angerstein, including a ‘Raising of Lazarus’ by Sebastiano del Piombo, had been acquired by the state. Even though the building did not yet exist, a commission made up of artists and men of culture was set up in 1824 to examine how best the collection should be conserved and enlarged.
Lord Lock Eastlake, director of the National Gallery from 1855 to 1865, initiated a systematic policy of conservation and restoration and enlarged the collection with many acquisitions that, at least at the outset, retained the Angerstein collection’s focus on the 16th century Italian artists. In this way, works by Correggio, Paolo Uccello and Piero della Francesca entered the museum, along with Titian’s ‘Bacchus and Ariadne’.
Later, the interest shifted toward the Northern European schools: halfway through the last century, works like van Eyck’s ‘Arnolfini Marriage Group’ and Holbein’s ‘Ambassadors’ were acquired by the museum. The decline in the country’s wealth in the 20th century has had repercussions on the bequests to the museum, and it has been forced to look on impotently as many masterpieces have found their way to America and, more recently, Japan.
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The National Gallery is London’s leading art museum with over 2,200 paintings, most kept on permanent display. The collection includes everything from early works by Giotto, in the 13th century, to 20th-century Picassos, but its particular strengths are in Dutch, early Renaissance Italian and 17th-century Spanish painting.
The National Gallery has flourished since its inception in the early 19th century. In 1824 George IV persuaded a reluctant government to buy 38 major paintings, including works by Raphael and Rembrandt, and these became the start of a national collection. The collection grew over the years as rich benefactors contributed works and money. The main gallery building was designed in Neo-Classical style by William Wilkins and built in 1834-8. To its left lies the new Sainsbury Wing, financed by the grocery family and completed in 1991. It houses some spectacular early Renaissance art.
Most of the collection is housed on one floor divided into rour wings. The paintings hang chronologically, with the earliest works (1260-1510) in the Sainsbury Wing. The North, West and East Wings cover 1510-1600, 1600-1700 and 1700-1920. Lesser paintings of all periods are on the lower floor.
Tate Gallery
Open to the public at Millbank in 1897, the museum was the fruit of an idea put forward by the National Gallery’s commission, that of creating a gallery devoted entirely to British art. After the bequest by the painter Turner, the donation of 67 paintings and three modern bronzes by Henry Tate in 1890 induced the state to acquire and set up a gallery. Originally it was made up of the Tate collection and 18 paintings by F.G.Watts, donated by the artist. Although intended to be an independent museum, it in fact remained under the control of the National Gallery for a long time, and soon came to be known as the Gallery of Modern British Art.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a Committee of Trustees was created and a wing was devoted to modern foreign art, as well. In 1917, a new pavilion was inaugurated. The acquisitions have covered a broad range, from the French Impressionists to Matisse, Picasso, Boccioni, Dali, Ernst, and the whole of Surrealism while never neglecting the country’s own artists, from Millais to Sickert, Spencer, and, recently Hockney.
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Originally built through the philanthropy of the sugar magnate Sir Henry Tate, the Tate Gallery now holds an extensive range of British works from the 16th to the 29th centuries. It is also London’s leading international modern art museum. In the adjoining Clore Gallery is the magnificent Turner’s Bequest, left to nation by the landscape artist J.M.W.Turner himself.
The Tate’s collection comprises three basic elements: British art from 1550 to the present day; International 20th-century art; and the Turner Collection housed in the purpose-built Clore Gallery. Most of the collection is housed in 30 rooms on the ground floor. Works on paper and temporary exhibitions are downstairs. The paintings are hung chronologically, tracing British art from 1550 to contemporary British and foreign art. The display is changed annually, in order to emphasize different aspects of collection.
The Louvre
The palace stands on the site of a fortress built for Philip II Augustus in 1214. In 1546 Francis I had the old castle demolished and gave orders for the construction of a new palace. Over the course of the centuries this has gone through enlargements, periods of neglect, and restorations, the most recent of which has led to the creation of the Grand Louvre with an exhibition area of 70,000 square meters. Opened to the public in 1793, its collection was the result of centuries of a passion for art on the part of French sovereigns. It was Francis I (1515-47) who created the nucleus of the collection, summoning artists like Leonardo, Rosso Fiorentino, and Cellini to his residence at Fonainebleau and commencing the construction of the Louvre.
There followed a period of neglect until the reign of Louis Xiii, when the interest in art was reawakened, largely through the efforts of the king’s minister Cardinal Richelieu. The cardinal added works by Leonardo, Veronese, and Poussin to the royal collections. At the same time the Queen Mother, Maria de’ Medici, commissioned an imposing series of allegorical paintings of her triumphs and those of the French monarchy from Rubens, which still hang in one of the museum’s large halls.
Under Louis XIV, who was aided in his choices by Cardinal Mazzarino, royal collecting went through its most ebullient half-century. On his death the number of paintings in the Crown’s possession had risen from 200 to 2000: these included pictures by van Dyck, Raphael’s ‘Baldassare Castiglione’, Titian’s ‘County Concert’, and Caravaggio’s ‘Death of the Virgin’.
In the 18th century the first problems with the organization and conservation of the numerous works began to surface: the credit for realizing the sovereign’s idea of a museum must be given to the Revolution. With the confiscation of ecclesiastical property and Napoleon’s campaigns the collection was enlarged, but the problem how to organize the works dogged the museum right through the 19th century.
Under Napoleon III, who continued the policy of acquiring prestigious collections, works like Paolo Uccello’s ‘Battle of San Romano’ and Leonardo’s ‘Annunciation’ entered the museum.
Лувр
Лувр(Louvre) ведет свою историю с XIII в., когда Филипп-Август для оборонительных целей построил мощную крепость вдоль Сены, которая занимала четверть современного “Cour Carre”, что означает «квадратный двор». Не будучи тогда королевской резиденцией (так как король предпочитал жить на острове Сите), крепость за своими неприступными стенами хранила королевскую казну и архивы. В XIV в. в связи с расширением территории Парижа и перемещением его укрепленных стен крепость, оказавшаяся внутри города, потеряла свое прежнее значение. Карл V сделал ее пригодной для жилья и разместил в ней свою обширную библиотеку, за что и получил свое прозвище «Мудрый». Однако французские короли мало жили в Лувре, предпочитая другие резиденции. В 1527 г. Франциск I велел снести крепостную башню и приступил к постройке нового дворца, который был воздвигнут уже при его преемнике Генрихе II архитектором Пьером Леско и скульптором Жаном Гужоном. Сейчас – это наиболее древняя часть всего огромного комплекса Лувра, составляющая юго-западный угол его внутреннего квадратного двора. Завершенный в середине XVI в. фасад является одним из лучших образцов архитектуры французского Возрождения. Его отличают спокойная уравновешенность горизонтальных и вертикальных членений, оригинальное применение классического ордера, благородство пропорций и тонкая завершенность деталей. Великолепный скульптурный декор, состоящий из статуй и барельефов, создает впечатление богатства и изысканности, но не перегружает стену. Торжественный вход и полукруглый фронтон наверху акцентируют центральную ось здания. После смерти Генриха II, раненного на турнире, его вдова Екатерина Медичи поручила архитектору Делорму строительство дворца Тюильри, с тем чтобы присоединить его к Лувру с помощью большой галереи, идущей по направлению к Сене. Работы были прерваны на некоторое время в связи со смертью Делорма, но затем продолжены и закончились при Генрихе IV с постройкой Павильона Флоры.
При обоих Людовиках – XIII и XIV, продолжалось постоянное расширение здания, закончившееся постройкой Восточного фасада с колоннадой, а также окончательным формированием Квадратного двора, обильно украшенного декоративной скульптурой и ставшего наиболее эффектной частью так называемого “Старого Лувра”. В 1682 г., когда королевский двор был перенесен в Версаль, все работы были практически заброшены, и Лувр пришел в такое состояние упадка, что в 1750 г. речь шла о его сносе. Надо сказать, что парижские женщины – торговки с базаров – буквально спасли здание от разрушения, когда они двинулись маршем на Версаль 6 октября 1789 г., чтобы заставить королевскую семью вернуться в Париж. После бурных лет Великой французской революции работы по строительству Лувра были вновь возобновлены Наполеоном: при нем архитекторы Персье и Фонтэн начали строительство северного крыла, которое было закончено уже в 1852 г. при Наполеоне III, поставившем себе целью завершить все работы в Лувре. После пожара во время Парижской коммуны в мае 1871 г., который был причиной гибели дворца Тюильри, Лувр принял ныне существующую П-образную форму и триумфальная арка на площади Карусель открыла величественную перспективу, завершаемую с запада Триумфальной Аркой на площади Звезды (Маршала де Голля).
“Большой Лувр”. Реставрационные работы начались в 1981 г. по решению президента Республики Франсуа Миттерана. Он задался целью вернуть зданию его первоначальный статус – статус музея. Для этого прежде всего Министерство финансов было переведено из Павильона Флоры в Берси. Связь между новыми залами и двором осуществляется с помощью пирамиды из прозрачного стекла, необычайно легкой конструкции; к этой пирамиде с двух сторон примыкают две другие, меньшего размера. Автором этого новаторского проекта был американский архитектор китайского происхождения Ео Минг Пей.
Музей Лувра – один из величайших музеев мира, был основан в эпоху Великой французской революции (1793), которая национализировала королевские собрания. В период правления Наполеона коллекция значительно расширилась, поскольку он требовал от всех побежденных наций контрибуции в виде произведений искусства. В настоящее время каталог музея насчитывает около 400.000 экспонатов, которые подразделяются на шесть отделов:
The Museum d’Orsay
The museum’s collection has been moved several times. Initially installed in the Musee du Luxembourg, it was then transferred to the Jen de Paume, a pavilion in the Tuileries gardens. Eventually it found a permanent home on the premises of the Gare d’Orsay, a gigantic construction of iron and steel surmounted by a glass dome on the bank of the Seine. Built for a Universal Exhibition, it was then converted into a railroad station. Closed down in the 60s, it was restructured and laid out as a museum by Gae Aulenti, opening in 1986.
The main core of the museum is its collection of Impressionist art. This had begun with the purchase of Manet’s ‘Olympia’ by Claude Monet on behalf of the Musee du Luxembourg, where modern art was exhibited. But this was not enough to break down the wall of indifference toward the Impressionists that had been raised by the institutions and many of the critics, with the result that the Caillebotte bequest, rich in works by Manet, Renoir, and Cezanne, was only accepted in part.
Later on the collection of modern art was enriched by other donations, such as the bequest of Manet’s ‘Le dejeuner sur l’herbe’ by a private individual in 1906 and of a valuable collection of paintings by Degas, Monet, Cezanne, and the early van Gogh in 1911. The museum’s collection was further enlarged by bequests from the families of artists (Toulouse-Lautrec in 1902, Bazille in 1904, Renoir in 1923, Monet in 1927, etc.) and private collectors, as well as by acquisitions on the part of the Friends of the Musee du Luxembourg.
Museum d’Orsay, art museum in Paris, France. This collection includes thousands of paintings, sculptures, photographs, and other works of art created between 1848 and 1914. The collection is arranged in three main galleries. Early works, displayed on the ground floor, range from the French neoclassical by painter Jean-August-Dominique Ingres through early impressionism and the Barbizon School. Special attractions include ‘La Source’, by Ingres, and ‘Arrangement in Black’ and Grey No.1: ‘The Artist’s Mother’, popularly known as ‘Whistler’s Mother’, by the American painter James Whistler.
Naturalism, art nouveau, and the symbolist movement are represented on the middle level, including a large permanent display of art nouveau furniture and objects d’art.
The upper level contains later impressionist and postimpressionist works, featuring works by artists such as Camille Pissarro, Paul Gauguin, Paul Cezanne, George Seurat, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Famous paintings of this period are displayed here, including the controversial ‘Le Dejeuner sur l’herbe’ by Edouard Manet, ‘Le Moulin de la Gallette’ by August Renoir, ‘Racing at Longchamps’ by Edgar Degas, and ‘Self-Portrait’ by Vincent Van Gogh.
Opened in 1896, the Museum d’Orsay is housed in a historical turn-of-the-century train station that was extensively remodeled during the early 1980s.
Музей Д’Орсэ
«Самым прекрасным музеем Европы» называют этот музей пресса. Он стоит на левом берегу Сены, на месте бывшего здания Суда Счетов, разрушенного во времена Парижской Коммуны. В 1898 году Компания железных дорог Париж – Орлеан поручила архитектору Виктору Лалу строительство вокзала д’Орсэ. Работы двигались очень быстро (они заняли менее двух лет), и новый вокзал был готов как раз ко времени открытия Всемирной выставки 1900 года. Лалу соорудил огромный центральный неф 135х40 м, металлическая конструкция которого была искусно покрыта снаружи имитацией мрамора светлых тонов. Вокзал вместил не только 16 платформ, но также рестораны и уютный отель на 400 номеров. С 1939 года вокзал д’Орсэ был заброшен, и переживал период длительного упадка, грозящего его сносом, несмотря на неоднократные попытки спасти его: Орсон Уэллс снимал здесь фильм «Процесс», актер Жан-Луи Барро основал свою компанию. В 1973 году президент Помпиду объявил вокзал национальным памятником и решил создать музей, какого еще не было в Париже – музей, способный вместить полвека искусства: со времен Второй Империи до начала кубизма. Идеальное соединительное звено между Лувром – храмом классического искусства и Центром Помпиду – храмом современного искусства. Работы по переоборудованию вокзала, которые начались в 1978 году, были поручены группе АСТ, а внутренняя отделка – архитектору-женщине из Италии Гае Ауленти. В настоящее время в музее на площади более 45.000 кв.м выставлено более 4.000 произведений искусства, включающих живопись, скульптуру, графику, мебель.
На нижнем этаже находится живопись, скульптура и декоративное искусство1850-1870 гг., среди которых произведения Энгра, Делакруа, Мане, Пюви де Шаванна и Гюстава Моро; на верхнем этаже представлена живопись импрессионистов – Моне, Ренуара, Писарро, Дега, Мане; собрания Персонна, Гаше и Гийомина, а также постимпрессионистская живопись с шедеврами Сера, Синьяка, Тулуз-Лотрека, Гогена, Ван Гога и группы «Наби» (Боннар, Вюйар, Валлоттон); и наконец на прормежуточном этаже представлено искусство с 1870 по 1914 гг.: официальное искусство III Республики, символизм, академическая живопись и декоративное искусство «Ар нуво», представленное Гимаром, Галле и школой Нанси.