Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

        Однако подлинное  собирательство было начато курфюрстом  Августом I, который в 1560 году основал кунсткамеру – то есть собрание всякого рода забавных исторических и естественно-этнографических редкостей. В его коллекциях были монеты, гравюры и всего несколько картин. И они не выставлялись, а использовались для украшения стен. Саксонские курфюрсты покупали картины и в XVII веке, но это были лишь отдельные приобретения, и долгое время собрание картин не содержало ничего особенного, за исключением нескольких произведений обоих Кранахов. Подлинный размах пополнение галереи приобрело при Августе II Сильном – курфюрсте саксонском и короле польском. За несколько десятилетий им была создана основа будущей Галереи, и вскоре уже Дрезденский замок не смог вмещать все произведения и коллекции. Картинная галерея была переведена в специально приготовленное для нее здание «Конюшен», и на этом заканчивается предыстория Дрезденской галереи.

        Его сын  и преемник Август III в середине XVIII века превратил придворное собрание в одну из крупнейших сокровищниц европейской живописи. С целеустремленностью и страстью, почти забросив государственные дела, он приобретал картины, не жалея для этого никаких средств. Август III организовал целую сеть агентов, которые разузнавали обо всех возможных распродажах и присутствовали на всех аукционах Парижа, Венеции и Антверпена. Здесь приобретались уже не отдельные произведения, а целые коллекции.

        В 1741 году  в Дрезден привезли большую коллекцию обедневшего герцога Валленштайна, а в 1745 году было куплено знаменитое собрание моденского герцога Франческо III д’Эсте, в которое входил шедевр Тициана «Динарий кесаря».

        В конце  Второй мировой войны (13 февраля  1945 года) на Дрезден был совершен массированный налет английской и американской авиации, хотя (как потом утверждали историки) никакой военной необходимости в этом не было – бомбы обрушивались на мирных жителей и превратили город в огненный факел. Погибло 35 тысяч жителей, 85% зданий было разрушено, город лежал в развалинах. Не избежал печальной участи и знаменитый архитектурный ансамбль Цвингер, в который входит известная всему миру Дрезденская галерея. От очаровательного Цвингера остались одни развалины, на месте Галереи высились только обугленные остовы стен. Более того, в Вашингтоне немецкий город Дрезден был включен в список городов, где предполагалось испытать американскую атомную бомбу. Только быстрое наступление Советской Армии спасло Дрезден от участи Хиросимы и Нагасаки.

        Перед неминуемым  крахом гитлеровцы спрятали шедевры  своей знаменитой Галереи в  сырых известняковых шахтах и  готовы были вообще взорвать  и уничтожить бесценные сокровища,  лишь бы они не попали в  руки русских. Многие полотна  сильно пострадали от сырости, и впоследствии их пришлось основательно реставрировать. В числе обнаруженных картин находились шедевры мировой значимости: среди них жемчужина мировой живописи – «Вирсавия» Рубенса, которая пострадала особенно сильно. В замке Везенштейн была обнаружена большая коллекция графики – подлинные рисунки Рембрандта, Корреджо, Греза и других прославленных мастеров живописи. Из картин здесь были найдены три портрета Веласкеса, «Портрет с цветком» Рембрандта, картины Пуссена, Мане, Дега и других великих художников.

        Когда были  найдены и подняты на свет  великие полотна, перед людьми  в сиянии нежной красоты предстала «Спящая Венера» Джорджоне. За ней последовали «Автопортрет с Саскией» Рембрандта, маленький серебристый «Праздник» Ватто, «Портрет дамы в белом» Тициана и мн. др. «Сикстинская мадонна» великого Рафаэля находилась в ящике, который не мог служить надежной защитой во время войны. Когда его открыли, глазам советских солдат и офицеров предстала дивная картина: широко раскрыв лучезарные глаза, перед ними стояла в облаках женщина дивной, неземной красоты. Окруженная сонмом ангелов, еле различимых в облаках и поющих ей славу, юная босоногая женщина с ребенком на руках идет с небес к людям. На каменную балюстраду оперлись два ангелочка, тем самым соединяя небесный и земной миры. Сильный ветер развевает одежды Мадонны, треплет волосы младенца Христа. Широко открытые глаза Мадонны выдают тревогу: она сливается со своим сыном, и защищает его, и отдает его людям.  Не сговариваясь, воины покорно сняли перед ней фуражки и пилотки, отдавая дань уважения великому мастеру и его творению. Двор саксонских курфюрстов купил эту картину в 1754 году в скромном итальянском монастыре, заплатив за нее немалую по тем временам сумму денег. 

        К сокровищам  Дрезденской галереи относится и «Мадонна с младенцем и четырьмя ангелами» Тициана. Это раннее произведение создано художником в 1512 году – примерно через четыре года после смерти его друга и учителя Джорджоне, когда самому Тициану было немногим более 20 лет. На полотне Тициана перед нами предстает «святое семейство», окруженное святыми и раскаявшейся грешницей Марией Магдалиной, объединенных духовным единством и силой материнского счастья. Зеленый занавес с золотой каймой придают всему полотну особую торжественность и усиливают естественную величавость поз. Сияние солнца и блеск голубого неба сообщают всему произведению настроение безмятежности и праздничности. Красота душевного выражения соединяется в этой удивительной картине с красотой поразительно блестящих красок.

THE RENAISSANCE

      The RENAISSANCE is one of the most familiar episodes in the history of art, and almost everybody has heard of great masters such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. The Renaissance was mainly centred on 15th and 16th-century Italy, although the Italians learned much from foreign artists, and eventually 'exported' their styles and techniques to create a 'Northern Renaissance'.

      The essential Italian achievement was to create an art based on observing, faithfully reproducing, and celebrating the world of man and nature. For most of human history, this type of art - naturalism - has been the exception rather than the rule. And in fact Renaissance naturalism only gradually replaced various medieval styles which reflected a very different outlook - for example, the use of solemn, stylized images against a gold background, designed to intensify religious devotion. The naturalistic tradition, established during the Renaissance, remained the norm in western art right down to the 20th century.

      The visual arts were only one aspect of the' Italian Renaissance, which was a new way of life, affecting everything from scholarship and statecraft to etiquette and fashion. Put crudely, where the Middle Ages had been otherworldly or heaven-centred, the Renaissance was this- worldly or human-centred. There was a new confidence in human potential, and 'Man can do all things' became received doctrine. Individual excellence was intensely admired and fame was ardently pursued.

     Much of this can be sensed in Renaissance paintings and sculptures. For example, the 15th century was the first great age of portraiture since ancient times seeking to capture the distinctive traits of an individual rather than to present a generalized image of power or piety. On the other hand, as the illustrations in this book demonstrate, the Renaissance was not worldly in the sense of being indifferent to religion; but religion itself had become warmer, more human and more aware of the beauty of God's creation. Artists responded by showing biblical episodes in a new way, as dramas of human love and suffering.

      A striking feature of the Renaissance was that people realized that they were living in an age of great achievement, but thought of it in terms of a revival rather than as something new. Although they never actually used the word Renaissance (French for 'rebirth'), this describes their outlook very accurately. Ungratefully despising the immediate past, they saw themselves as returning to the values of Classical Antiquity - the civilization of ancient Greece and Rome.

      The impact of classicism on the visual arts can be seen in the Roman-style, round-arched buildings that feature in paintings and reliefs, in the popularity of mythological scenes, and above all in the reappearance of the nude in western art. The naked body, in the Middle Ages almost always an object of shame, became the most expressive of all forms in the works of an artist such as Michelangelo. The emphasis on physical splendour - beautiful, perfectly proportioned men and women - also derives from the classical tradition as the Renaissance understood it.

      New aims called for the development of new skills. Around 1400, artists began to master the science of perspective, which helped them to create convincing three-dimensional appearances on flat surfaces; other aids to naturalism were modelling by using light and shade, and the study of anatomy. There were also exciting technical advances in bronze casting, wall painting (the fresco technique, using fresh, still-damp, plaster) and panel painting, where oils (an import from Flanders) gradually supplanted the older tempera medium; and towards the end of the Renaissance the easel painting - done in oil paints on canvas - was introduced.

      The achievements of the Renaissance are bound up with the development of thriving cities such as Florence, Rome and Venice - independent centres with wealthy citizens and civic and religious authorities, eager to beautify them and outdo their rivals. Florence produced more great artists than any other centre, but the climax of the Renaissance - the 'High Renaissance' - took place in early 16th century Rome, where papal munificence created unparalleled opportunities for work on the grand scale by Michelangelo, Raphael and others. The Renaissance impulse flagged from about 1530, although Venetian art retained its full vigour until late in the century. But long before then the Renaissance had crossed the Alps and was conquering Europe.

The Impressionists

         I'm well aware," said Renoir, "that it's difficult to acknowledge that a painting can be both great and yet full of fun. Because Fragonard made jokes, people were quick to say he was a secondary artist. Those who laugh aren't taken seriously. But art in formal dress, whether it's painting, music, or literature, will always impress us." The crowds who stand in long lines to see Impressionist exhibitions today - at a time when a smile is a rare thing - seem to acknowledge that this painter of happiness was right.

        However, these ten or so "madmen" who managed to focus such official hostility upon themselves during the twenty years (1860-1880) of the Impressionist adventure, had much else to be forgiven for. One doesn't flout the most firmly established rules of western art without causing dismay and astonishment. One doesn't aspire to have hanging in the Salons what seems at first glance a rough sketch, splattered with blobs, or outlines traced with a light brush, when the glossy and perfected are proof of art and of serious work. One doesn't sit at a bridge table to play poker. The members of the Institute the Beaux-Arts professors, are in absolute good faith when they write, like Gerome, immortal creator of the Death of Caesar and the Reception of the Duke of Conde at Versailles, in 1894, "Painting will be finished under them, I tell you. They joke, they say, 'Oh, it's nothing,' but you wait and see, it will be the end of the country, the end of France."

        Nevertheless these "angry young men" had the best intentions. Worse yet, they came from good families. They were rather like those very well-born sons of Neuilly who are found on the extreme left. Bazille came from an old, rich, Protestant family, Degas was born in the bosom of the financial aristocracy, Manet's father was a high official, and Cezanne's was a banker. The parents of Monet and Pissarro were merchants in easy circumstances. Caillebotte had an industrialist for a father, and Berthe Morisot a magistrate. Only Renoir came from a poor family. The rich bourgeois Manet, elegant, sociable, something of a snob, steeped in tradition, respectful of the past, only wanted people to like him, to attain critical and public recognition. He sought official glory, and favor and medals from the Salons. He unintentionally provoked scandal after scandal, while trying to excuse himself. "Sincerity gives to painting a character of protest, while in fact, the artist simply wants to render his idea. He wants 'Only to be himself. He says 'sincerity' and people cry 'indecency."'

        Manet summed up all his work with a command that future generations would follow: "Look for bright light and deep shadow, the rest will come naturally, and it's often little enough." A slight remark yet it weighs heavily enough in the working out of contemporary painting. In contrast to the Neo-Classicists who overwhelm a picture with forms and lifelike figures which stand out from the background, the Impressionists see a picture as a blend of colored splashes forming a whole in which landscape and figures are merged.

        The Impressionists were not scholars, but they had some knowledge of the work of the chemist Chevreul. Having observed that the juxtaposition of colored objects modified the optical nature of them, Chevreul, director of the Gobelin tapestry works, formulated the Law of Simultaneous Color Contrasts. This law may be summed up in two points: each color tends to tint with its complementary color its neighboring colors; if two objects contain a common color, the effect of their juxtaposition is to lessen the intensity of the common element. Thus, with science supporting their own empirical discoveries, the Impressionists boldly ventured both. The day would come when the Neo-Impressionists, with Seurat, would try to make an equation of the magic formula.

        For the time being the Impressionists were content to be nothing but an eye. "But what an eye!" Cezanne would say to Monet. To a friend who quoted to his Amiel's idea that "a landscape is a state of soul," Degas answered, "Oh no, landscape is a state of eye." The traditional conventions were abandoned (drawing, perspective, studio lighting. The thing was to suggest form and distance by their own vibrations and color contrasts. "I have spent my life 'knitting prisms,"' Monet would say, "treating light like a piece of embroidery. At that time the fashion for landscape was at its zenith in Europe. English artists invaded Chamonix and Pau each summer. The forests of the Serpentara near Rome, and of Soignes near Brussels were veritable open-air studios. The forest of Fontainebleau, if the Goncourt brothers are to be believed, was full of bearded young painters without any money, carrying their easels on their backs. Against the shameless display of riches and bourgeois bad taste, the Impressionists reacted as ecologists. Sisley and Renoir were at Barbizon, Monet and Bazille at Chailly-en-Biere. "No self-respecting painter should touch a brush if his model isn't under his eyes," Diaz had said to them. True Parisians, they left Paris for the country. "He cannot paint a landscape without putting in dressed-up ladies and gentlemen," Zola wrote in an article entitled "Claud Monet, Modern Painter."

        Responding to those who were astonished that his picture Women in the Garden had been painted in the open air despite its large size (2.55 x 2.05 m.), Monet remarked: "Yes, I really painted this picture on the spot and from nature, which wasn't previously done. I scooped out a hole in the ground, a sort of ditch, into which I could progressively lower my canvas as I reached the top. What he didn't reveal is that he had employed only his first wife, Camille, and a friend to represent the four young women dressed in elegant summer dresses. He used fashion engravings for the costumes and had gone over each part carefully in the studio. The faces are surprising; drawn like masks and already, approaching the abstract, they are even more stylized than some figures of Manet.  For Women in the Garden is also a challenge to Manet. Monet meant to prove that he was not only a landscape artist, but could also put figure into them.

        Manet was already in the limelight because of a scandal which everyone was talking about for better, but mostly for worse. "It seems that I must do a nude,” he had said at Argenteuil. "Well, I'm going to do one in a transparent atmosphere with people like those you see down there. They are going to tear me to pieces. Let them say what they like!" Manet sent his Luncheon on the Grass to the Salon, hoping for a medal. But, as he had predicted, they did tear him to pieces. However, he had taken some precautions. Knowing that he would have some trouble he had taken his composition straight from Titian and Raphael. Nothing could be more classical. But this more than a naked woman rendered even more immodest by the proximity of the fully clothed men y had the effect of a stone thrown into a pond. Manet's intentions had not been altogether innocent. He himself had spoken of its being a partie carree,  a pleasure party for four. Delacroix's nudes are always more or less idealized, and those of Courbet, even the most licentious, are not completely detached from academic conventions. This woman, undressed rather than naked, gives the effect of a photograph taken by a prying camera. Thus Manet "blackmailed" the hypocritical bourgeoisie of his time, who could not bear such a scene, astonishingly modern, far from any mythological pretext, the subject and the technique both running counter to precedent and behavior. In Le Figaro of 24 May 1863, Charles Mouselet wrote: "M. Manet is a pupil of Goya and Baudelaire. He has already gained the disgust of the middle class."

        Courbet himself, that "painter of the low" who had been given the title of realist and whose Young Women on the Bank of the Seine had partly inspired Luncheon on the Grass, had not been as calm a revolutionary. Certainly the critics had bitterly attacked his picture for its "subject of doubtful taste." He had overturned a longstanding convention: only nymphs are supposed to haunt the riverside. Courbet meant it to be clearly understood that these "young ladies” obviously of loose morals, these “working girls” dressed in their Sunday best, had not merely passed the afternoon in gathering flowers. Stupendous in execution, teeming with an assortment of things (the clothes, the bunch of flowers, the mittens of the big girl), Young Women is already Impressionist.

       In the same way Delacroix, with his Death of Ophelia is halfway between Romanticism and Impressionism. This “painter of the soul” – whereas the Impressionists aspired to an emptier gaze – has infused sadness into the scene. But the story of the subject disappears today to the gain of the enchanting color. The partition of tone, for example, is the origin of many of the consequent systematic discoveries of the Impressionists.

        There was one discovery besides that of Chevreul that exited the artists, making it henceforth impossible to paint as formerly: photography. “Who among us would be capable of such fidelity, such steadiness in the interpretation of line, such delicacy in the reproduction! Photography is so beautiful … it is so beautiful, but one shouldn’t admit it!” This remark was from Ingres to one of his pupils. It reflects the uneasiness of the artist before this new art. For artists were at times very afraid of photography, as the cinema was recently afraid of television and the press of audiovisuals. Later, adding the finishing touches to the autochrome, the industrial result of a simultaneous discovery by Dicos de Hauron and Charles Cros in 1869 (a three-color synthesis, a process of fusing into one image the three different proofs obtained by yellow, red, and blue filters) the Lumiere brothers put color at the disposal of photographers. Then, in a fitting turn of events, was to be seen a blossoming of red umbrellas thanks to the Pointillist texture of potato starch (base in process), held by all the ladies photographed in a country setting, as a sort of homage to Impressionism.

        “Water is the earth’s gaze, its means of looking at the water,” wrote Claudel. Degas thought, “One must keep on looking at everything, the big boats and the little boats, the movement of people both on the water and ashore. It’s the movement of people and things which entertains and even consoles us. If the leaves on the trees didn’t move, how sad the trees would be, and so would we!”  This fondness for movement, where could it be better satisfied than on the water? In this area’s Monet’s stature is higher than all the others, but he was not the only one attracted by water. “There are a great many of us here at the moment, at Honfleurs,” he wrote on 26 August 1864. Besides many “very bad painters, a lot of fools, we have a pleasant little circle. Jongkind and Boudin are here, we get along wonderfully and we never stop.” Two of Monet’s seascapes were accepted by the jury of the Salon of 1863: The Mouth of the Seine at Honfleure and Heve Point at Low Tide, seascapes which brought a substantial breath of fresh air into all the babbling allegories and bituminous models of the academicians. It was a real success, and Paul Mantz, in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts, presented to his readers “a new name, that of M. Claude Monet.” Visitors who were either facetious or were simply ill-informed congratulated Manet on a canvas from the brush of Monet: “Your picture’s wonderful, old boy,” and Manet complained, “Oh, my dear friend, it’s disgusting. I’m furious. They are congratulating me on a picture which isn’t mine. It must be a hoax.” “But in God’s name, there are only about four of us who are capable of doing such a piece!” It was by something in this strain, if Zola is to be believed, that Daubigny, a member of the jury, welcomed Monet’s Ship Leaving the Pier at le Havre to the Salon of 1868.