Автор работы: Пользователь скрыл имя, 27 Сентября 2013 в 05:55, шпаргалка
London
The capital city of England and the United Kingdom lies on the River Thames, which winds through the city. Its many bridges are a famous sight. The oldest is London Bridge, originally made of wood but rebuilt in stone in 1217. The most distinctive is Tower Bridge, which was designated to blend in with the nearby Tower of London.
Совпадающая юрисдикция (Concurrent jurisdiction)
В некоторых
случаях юрисдикция районного
суда совпадает с юрисдикцией
суда штата, т.е. дело может
– в зависимости от
В теории вопрос о разграничении юрисдикций между двумя ветвями судебной власти в США относительно ясен, практически же он невероятно запутан и усложнен. Перенесение дела из суда штата в районный федеральный суд сопряжено с рядом формальностей, невыполнение которых чревато многими неприятностями и потерей ремени. «Совпадающая юрисдикция» распространяется в основном на две категории дел. К первой относятся споры в связи с равоотношениями, регулируемыми Конституцией США, федеральнми законами и международными договорами, участником которых является США, если сумма иска составляет меньше 10 тыс. долл.; дело в этом случае, несмотря на наличие, казалось бы, всех признаков федеральной юрисдикции, должно рассматриваться в суде штата. Ко второй категории относятся дела со смешанным гражданством с суммой иска также меньше 10 тыс. долл. Так же, как и в предыдущем случае, такие дела рассматривают не в федеральном суде, а в суде штата. т
Concurrent jurisdiction
In some cases jurisdiction of district court and state court is the same, i.e., case can be heard – depending on circumstances prescribed by the law - in both state and district courts. Theoretically jurisdiction distinction question between 2 branches of judicial system in the USA is relatively clear, but, in practice, it is very complex and puzzle. Transfer of cause from state to federal court connected with variety of formalities nonfulfillment of which causes (results in) many hardships and loss of time. Concurrent jurisdiction basically concerns 2 categories of cases. The first category is the cases regarding wrongdoings regulated by the Constitution of the US, federal laws and foreign conventions in which USA participates. If amount of suit is less than $10 000 the case will be heard - in spite of presence of all federal jurisdiction features – in state court. The second category is cases of combined citizenship with the sum of suit also less than $10 000. Such cases also are heard not in the federal courts but in the state one. The objective that legislator pursues using concurrent jurisdiction quite evident: to free the federal courts from large amount of small cases, give them opportunity to concentrate on more important questions providing relative equability of judicial practice which is assumed (considered) by legislator (considerably) important enough.
Окружные апелляционные суды США (Circuit courts of appeals)
В 1891 г., чтобы разгрузить Верховный
суд США, были созданы
Circuit courts of appeals
The Circuit courts of appeals reviewing judgements of the District courts were organized in order to relieve the Supreme Court of the accumulation of cases in 1891. The number of circuits was brought to 11 (nowadays 12) and some changes were made in the order of taking cases to trial by the U.S. Supreme court. In 1911 the circuit courts of appeals were reorganized. Their functions were adjusted to their name – they became only an appeals instance and Federal system in general has taken its present form: there is at least one District court being the court of original jurisdiction in each state (including the District of Columbia). 12 courts of appeals (one court in every district) are courts of appellate jurisdiction, they review judgements of the District courts and some federal administrative authorities. The U.S. Supreme Court which has original jurisdiction in extremely limited number of cases, final jurisdiction in appellate cases and, at last, is the highest judicial authority in the USA fulfilling a function of judicial review hence having a right to vindicate the case from each inferior court and take it to trial is at the top of the Federal system. Organized in different time special courts (the Court of Claims, the Tax Court, the Court of Customs) and some non-judicial authorities, such as the Federal Trade Commission, are parts of this three-layer system, but they stand slightly apart. District courts of so-called U.S. territories: Panama Canal Zone, Guam, the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico take special place in the federal court system. These territories are not included in the union at the rights of the state but from the formal point of view they are integral part of it.
Билль о правах
В
глазах большинства
Bill of Rights
For most Americans the real foundation of their freedom is Bill of Rights passed in 1791. It is composed of 10 short clauses which guarantee freedom and rights of individual and prohibit governmental invasion of privacy. Every clause was passed as an Amendment to the primary text of the Constitution.
Bill of Rights guarantees Americans the freedom of religion, of speech and of the press as well as the freedom of the people to assembly in public places, the right to protest against the actions of the Government and to demand changes. Americans have a right to keep and bear Arms if they want it. Thanks to the Bill of Rights neither Police nor representatives of the Armed Forces have a right for unreasonable search and seizure of the person. They also have no right to search person’s house without proper determination of the court.
Bill of Rights guarantees the person accused of the crime the right for a speedy trial. Defendant can be trialed only by jury and should have guaranteed right to use services of the counsel for the defence and to have compulsory process for obtaining witness. Cruel and unusual punishments are prohibited. Later years other 16 Constitutional Amendments were passed. It is not so much if we keep in mind that the Constitution was written in 1787. We should note only some of them here: one amendment prohibiting slavery and three ones which guarantee citizenship and full rights to every person irrespective of race and an amendment giving women the right to vote and one reducing voting age to 18.
Система сдержек и противовесов
Говоря о разделении управления на три независимые и самостоятельные власти, американцы часто упоминают так называемую систему «сдержек и противовесов». Эта система проявляется самыми разносторонними образами, удерживая ту или иную власть от совершения серьезных ошибок. Вот несколько примеров действия этой системы: Если Конгресс выдвинет законопроект, который Президент сочтет неприемлемым, Президент может наложить на него вето. Это означает, что законопроект не станет законом. Конгресс может отменить наложенное Президентом вето лишь двумя третями голосов при голосовании обеих палат. Если Конгресс проведет закон, впоследствии оспариваемый в судах, как неконституционный, Верховный суд обладает полномочиями объявить его неконституционным и, тем самым, аннулировать. Президент уполномочен заключать соглашения с иностранными государствами и производить назначения федеральных должностных лиц, в том числе и членов Верховного суда. Сенат, однако, обязан ратифицировать все договоры и утверждать все назначения, прежде чем они вступят в законную силу. Подобным образом Конгрес препятствует возможным непродуманным назначениям со стороны
Checks and balances
Speaking about dividing government into 3 independent and self-maintained branches Americans often mention so-called Checks and balances system. This system shows itself in different ways preventing the government authorities from serious mistakes. Here are some examples of its action: If the Congress draws a Bill but the President considers it unacceptable, the President can put a veto on it. It means that the bill will not become an act. Congress can override the President’s veto by vote of two thirds of each House of Congress. If the Congress passes a law subsequently challenged in the court as unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has the power to declare it nconstitutional thus to abate it. The President is empowered to conclude treaties with the foreign countries and to appoint federal officials including the members of the Supreme Court. But the Senate must ratify all treaties and approve all appointments before they come into force. In such a way the Congress prevents possible unreasoned appointments of the President.
Верховный Суд США (1)
Высшим органом судебной
The Supreme Court of the United States.
The Supreme Court is the highest organ of the judiciary of the United States. It includes a Chief Justice and Associate justices that are appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. As a court of original primary risdiction, it deals with the cases affecting public ministers and consuls and other cases in which a state is a party. In all other cases based on the onstitution, federal laws and international treaties concluded in the United States, the Supreme Court is the last appellate instance.The activity of the Supreme Court, that is the main organ of constitutional control, is of great importance for the state laws. The question about the relevance of a given law can be raised by any court but only if it is based on a concrete civil or criminal case. The final decision in this case is made by Supreme Court of the United States. The law that is recognized by it as unconstitutional can’t be abolished nor can’t be used. In practice, the Supreme Court of the United States interprets the items of the Constitution rather unrestrictedly. Very often the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States interpret the items of the Constitution firmly but sometimes liberal decisions can be made in order to limit the arbitrariness of the authorities.
Судебная власть (2)
Судебная
власть возглавляется
Федеральной юрисдикции
Сегодня в Верховный суд
Юрисдикция Верховного Суда США (3)
В качестве суда первой
The Judiciary.
The Judiciary power of the United States are vested in the Supreme Court- the only court of the country which establishment is mentioned in the Constitution. Besides, the Congress has established 11 federal appellate courts and 91 district courts subordinated to them. The federal judges are appointed for life and can be removed from their office only by impeachment or court of the Congress. All the cases that are valid according to the Constitution, Laws and other treaties of the United States, as well as cases concerning foreigners, government and cases in which a federal government is a party are under the state jurisdiction. The cases that are under the jurisdiction of the states, usually are not treat by the federal court.
Nowadays, the Supreme Court includes a Chief Justice and eight associate justices. Apart from the several exceptions, all cases go to the Supreme Court either by appeal from the lower instances- federal courts or by state courts. The majority of such cases are about the disagreements in the interpretation of the law and codes of law. In practice, the most important function of the Supreme Court is to verify that the activities of the legislative and executive branches are conformed to the Constitution. This kind of right of the juridical control was defined not by the Constitution but by Supreme Court itself by analyzing its constitutional role while dealing with the case “Merbery against Madison” in 1803, that was the starting point in this aspect of the activity.